Mohammad T Islam (BSc, MBA, MEd)

Making Effective PowerPoint Slides: Avoiding the Pitfalls of Bad Presentations

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In today’s professional and educational environments, the ability to deliver effective presentations is a critical skill. Whether in business, education, healthcare, or community engagement, presentations serve as a vital tool for communicating ideas, persuading audiences, and sharing knowledge. However, the effectiveness of a presentation depends not only on the content but also on how it is structured and delivered. Poorly designed slides—cluttered with text, inconsistent fonts, or distracting animations—can undermine the message and disengage the audience (Reynolds, 2012). This article explores best practices for creating PowerPoint slides while highlighting common pitfalls to avoid. Drawing on academic literature, journal articles, and reputable sources, it examines the significance of outlines, slide structure, fonts, colour, backgrounds, graphs, spelling and grammar, conclusions, and questions. The discussion demonstrates that strong presentation skills enhance clarity, professionalism, and audience engagement. Outlines: The Foundation of Effective Presentations The slides emphasise the importance of starting with an outline slide, which provides a roadmap for the audience. This technique sets expectations, clarifies the structure of the talk, and helps both the speaker and the audience follow the presentation logically. As Atkinson (2004) explains, a clear outline creates a sense of direction, ensuring that key ideas are highlighted and that tangents are minimised. It also reassures the audience by letting them know what topics will be covered and how long the presentation is likely to take. For instance, a university lecturer might begin with an outline covering three main themes—introduction, analysis, and conclusion—allowing students to anticipate the flow of the lecture. By contrast, omitting an outline may confuse audiences, leaving them uncertain about what to expect. A lack of structure can reduce engagement and cause listeners to lose focus (Anderson, 2016). Slide Structure: Good vs Bad Practice An effective slide structure is crucial for ensuring that presentations are clear and accessible. The guidance provided in the slides suggests using one to two slides per minute, keeping each slide to 4–5 key points, and avoiding lengthy paragraphs. This aligns with cognitive load theory, which states that audiences can only process a limited amount of information at once (Sweller, Ayres and Kalyuga, 2011). Good practice involves: Using concise bullet points rather than full sentences. Presenting one point at a time to prevent the audience from reading ahead. Avoiding excessive animation, which can distract from the message. For example, in a corporate meeting, a presenter introducing quarterly sales results should highlight only the essential figures rather than filling a slide with dense paragraphs of text. On the other hand, a bad slide structure—such as overcrowding the screen with information or inconsistent use of fonts and bullet points—can overwhelm the audience and reduce comprehension (Mayer, 2009). Fonts: Clarity and Professionalism Font choice significantly affects readability and audience perception. Clear, simple fonts such as Arial or Times New Roman are considered professional and easy to read (Guffey and Loewy, 2017). The slides recommend a minimum of 24-point font, with larger sizes for titles and smaller ones for secondary points. This ensures visibility, especially in larger rooms. Common pitfalls include using overly small fonts, excessive capitalisation, or decorative fonts that may look attractive but are difficult to read (Duarte, 2010). For example, using a script font in a business proposal presentation may appear unprofessional and reduce the credibility of the speaker. Maintaining consistency in font style and size throughout a presentation enhances clarity and creates a cohesive visual identity (Reynolds, 2012). The Effective Use of Colour Colour is a powerful design element that can reinforce meaning, guide attention, and evoke emotions. According to Mahnke (1996), colours influence both mood and cognition, making them critical in presentations. Good practice includes: Using colours that contrast with the background (e.g., dark blue text on a white slide). Applying consistent colour schemes to convey structure (e.g., using one colour for headings and another for body text). Employing colour sparingly to emphasise key points rather than overwhelm the slide. Bad practice occurs when too many colours are used, when text blends into the background, or when inconsistent colour choices confuse the audience. For example, a slide with red, green, yellow, and purple fonts on a patterned background may look cluttered and distract from the core message. As Alley and Neeley (2005) suggest, colour should be purposeful, not decorative. Backgrounds: Keeping It Simple The background of a slide should support rather than compete with the main content. Simple, light-coloured backgrounds enhance readability and ensure that the text and visuals remain the focus (Duarte, 2010). The slides caution against distracting backgrounds or frequent changes in design, which can confuse audiences and reduce professionalism. For example, a presentation on workplace training that uses multiple bright, clashing background patterns may appear unstructured and unprofessional. A clean, consistent background communicates clarity and focus, reinforcing the professional image of the presenter. Graphs and Tables: Visualising Data Effectively In many professional fields, data presentation is critical. The slides suggest that graphs and tables are more effective than raw text or numbers, as they allow audiences to visualise trends and relationships more easily. Mayer (2009) supports this by demonstrating that dual coding—combining visuals with words—enhances understanding and memory retention. Good practice involves: Using graphs to highlight key trends (e.g., a line graph showing growth over time). Keeping visuals simple, with clear labels and titles. Avoiding unnecessary gridlines, excessive shading, or overly small fonts that obscure meaning. For example, when presenting financial data to stakeholders, a clean bar chart comparing quarterly revenue is far more effective than a cluttered spreadsheet of figures. Tufte (2001) argues that data visualisation should prioritise clarity and avoid unnecessary decoration, a principle often neglected in poorly designed slides. Spelling and Grammar: Attention to Detail Accurate spelling and grammar are essential for maintaining credibility. Mistakes can distract the audience and damage the speaker’s professional image (Guffey and Loewy, 2017). In some cases, errors may even lead to misunderstandings that affect decision-making. For example, a presenter pitching a business proposal that contains repeated words, missing punctuation, or incorrect spelling may appear careless. In professional contexts, such errors … Read more

Presentation Skills and Personal Presentation

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The way we present ourselves and our ideas plays a crucial role in effective communication. Strong presentation skills enable us to convey information clearly and persuasively, while personal presentation ensures we create a positive and lasting impression. In professional, academic, and social contexts, these attributes are essential for building trust, demonstrating credibility, and influencing audiences. This article explores the key elements of presentation skills and personal presentation, supported by insights from textbooks, journal articles, and reputable sources. 1.0 Presentation Skills 1.1 Public Speaking Public speaking is widely regarded as one of the most vital skills for professional success. It involves the ability to communicate with clarity, confidence, and engagement before an audience (Lucas & Stob, 2004). Effective speakers structure their arguments logically, use appropriate language, and maintain eye contact with their audience. For example, in a business setting, a manager presenting a project proposal must use persuasive language, supportive evidence, and vocal authority to secure stakeholder approval. Research highlights that audiences often judge a speaker within the first few moments of their presentation, making initial delivery critical (Chung et al., 2023). Good posture, confident tone, and clear articulation immediately establish authority, while hesitation or nervousness can undermine credibility. 1.2 First Impressions First impressions are particularly influential in presentations, as they shape how the audience perceives both the speaker and the message (DePaulo, 1992). According to interpersonal communication research, individuals form initial impressions based on appearance, tone, and body language, often within the first 30 seconds (Hartley, 2010). For example, a well-prepared lecturer who begins with an engaging story can capture attention and set a positive tone for the session. Conversely, a disorganised start may lose audience interest quickly. 1.3 Voice Techniques The voice is a powerful tool in presentations, as it conveys emotion, emphasis, and clarity. Effective use of clarity, pitch, and tone helps maintain audience engagement and ensures comprehension (Kilag et al., 2023). The classic rule of the “5 Ps”—Preparation, Planning, Prevents Poor Performance—underscores the importance of rehearsal to master voice modulation (Hargie, Dickson & Tourish, 2004). For instance, politicians often use deliberate pauses, vocal variety, and controlled pitch to persuade and inspire. In contrast, a monotonous delivery risks disengaging listeners. Breathing techniques and posture also contribute to stronger projection and vocal endurance (O’Hair, Stewart & Rubenstein, 2011). 2.0 Personal Presentation 2.1 Personal Hygiene Personal hygiene is an often-overlooked aspect of professional presence, yet it strongly influences perceptions of professionalism. As Kaye (2002) argues, grooming and cleanliness demonstrate respect for the audience and context. In customer service or healthcare, where face-to-face interaction is constant, maintaining high standards of hygiene directly affects trust and rapport. 2.1.1 Dress Code The dress code is another crucial element of personal presentation. Appropriate attire signals credibility, authority, and awareness of professional norms (Volin, 2004). For example, a solicitor appearing in court in formal attire conveys seriousness and respect for the legal process, whereas casual dress could be perceived as unprofessional. Dress codes, however, vary across industries. In creative fields, smart-casual attire may reflect innovation, while in finance or law, formal suits remain standard (Wilson, 2016). Therefore, understanding the expectations of one’s professional environment is key to personal presentation. 2.1.2 Body Language Body language communicates meaning beyond words. Non-verbal cues—such as gestures, posture, and facial expressions—reinforce spoken messages and influence audience perception (Pease & Pease, 2008). For instance, open gestures and a relaxed stance can communicate confidence, while crossed arms may signal defensiveness or discomfort. Research suggests that up to 93% of communication may be non-verbal, combining tone of voice, facial expression, and body language (Tuhovsky, 2015). In presentations, maintaining eye contact and nodding affirmatively can build rapport with the audience, while fidgeting or avoiding gaze can diminish impact. 3.0 The Importance of Planning The foundation of effective presentations lies in planning. The principle of the **5 Ps—Preparation, Planning, Prevents Poor Performance—**reminds speakers that careful organisation is essential for success (Hargie, Dickson & Tourish, 2004). Planning involves clarifying the purpose, understanding the audience, and structuring content into a coherent flow. For example, a medical educator designing a lecture must consider the learning objectives, the level of knowledge of students, and the best use of visual aids (Bin Abdulrahman & Darami, 2025). This ensures that delivery is not only informative but also engaging and accessible. 4.0 Projecting and Amplifying the Voice To address large audiences, speakers must project and amplify their voices. This requires attention to clarity, pitch, and tone (Lucas & Stob, 2004). Variation in vocal delivery helps sustain interest and highlights key points. For instance, during a university lecture, a professor may lower their voice for emphasis or raise it to energise the audience. Good posture and controlled breathing also enhance vocal power. As Stewart and colleagues (2011) argue, diaphragmatic breathing supports sustained speech and reduces vocal strain. This is particularly important for teachers, broadcasters, and performers, whose professions demand frequent public speaking. 5.0 Using Prompt Cards Effectively Prompt cards are a practical tool to maintain structure during presentations. They allow speakers to note key points in order without reading verbatim (Lucas & Stob, 2004). This technique ensures delivery remains natural, enabling speakers to interact with the audience rather than being tied to a script. For example, in student presentations, prompt cards often reduce anxiety by providing reassurance. However, over-reliance can lead to disengagement if the presenter spends too much time reading instead of speaking directly to the audience (Eggert, 2012). 6.0 Presentation Day – Being Prepared On the day of a presentation, preparation is paramount. Recommendations include bringing: A digital copy of slides on a USB drive. A printed copy of slides for reference. A script or prompt cards. Readiness to be recorded on video (Kaye, 2002). Such preparation demonstrates professionalism and ensures that unexpected technical difficulties do not compromise delivery. For example, having a printed copy of slides can save a conference presentation if a laptop fails. Presentation skills and personal presentation are indispensable for effective communication. Public speaking, first impressions, and voice techniques shape how messages are received, while personal … Read more

Presentation Nerves: Strategies for Confident Speaking in Front of Others

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Presenting in front of others remains one of the most common sources of anxiety for students and professionals alike. Often labelled glossophobia, the fear of speaking before an audience can manifest in physical symptoms such as sweating, trembling, or a racing heart, alongside psychological effects including self-doubt and negative thinking (Bodie, 2010). While nerves are natural, unmanaged anxiety can hinder communication, reduce clarity, and undermine confidence. This article explores practical strategies for managing presentation nerves like awkward interruptions, difficult questions, and stage fright, drawing upon insights from textbooks, scholarly research, and professional practices to develop a comprehensive understanding of how to manage presentation nerves effectively. Understanding Presentation Anxiety Presentation anxiety has both psychological and physiological roots. According to Raja (2017), students often perceive public speaking as a threatening situation due to fear of judgement, evaluation, or failure. The cognitive-behavioural model suggests that anxious speakers engage in negative self-talk (“I will make a mistake”), which heightens physiological arousal, thereby worsening performance (Bodie, 2010). Kho and Ting (2023) note that tertiary-level students across ESL and EFL contexts particularly struggle with presentation anxiety, as they must simultaneously manage language barriers and communication apprehension. Similarly, Rabbiani (2024) shows that group practice reduces nervousness, as shared experiences provide reassurance and lessen feelings of isolation. In short, presentation nerves are not simply a matter of personality weakness but a predictable reaction to perceived social evaluation. Recognising this is the first step in normalising anxiety and developing effective coping strategies (Shapiro, 2024). Coping with Awkward Interruptions and Questions Managing interruptions requires both tact and authority. Jurin, Roush and Danter (2010) argue that speakers must maintain control of the floor while demonstrating respect for the audience. A polite response such as: “That is a valuable point; perhaps we can return to it at the end” allows presenters to remain in charge without dismissing audience contributions. When faced with awkward or difficult questions, transparency is critical. Admitting uncertainty does not diminish credibility; instead, it signals intellectual honesty. Ireland (2020) found that students who openly acknowledged gaps in knowledge were perceived as more authentic by peers. For example, in academic or professional conferences, presenters often respond with: “That is an interesting angle; I will explore it further.” This approach reframes vulnerability as strength, building trust with the audience. Managing Mistakes and Stage Fright Mistakes during presentations are inevitable. The most effective response is to pause, take a breath, and correct oneself calmly. This technique mirrors diaphragmatic breathing, which reduces physiological arousal and restores composure (Lamarca, 2023). Stage fright, described as a surge of fight-or-flight response, is almost universal. Northedge (1990) argues that practice and exposure are the most effective remedies. Carlisle et al. (2025) demonstrate that repeated exposure to virtual reality (VR) simulations of public speaking significantly reduces anxiety among university students. Similarly, Pertaub, Slater and Barker (2002) found that rehearsing in front of virtual audiences enables gradual acclimatisation without real-world risks. In higher education, accountancy students frequently report anxiety around oral assessments. Ireland (2020) revealed that after structured rehearsal, students’ confidence grew significantly, with anxiety levels reduced over time. Psychological Reframing and Positive Mindsets Reframing presentations as opportunities rather than threats can transform anxiety into motivation. Inyai (2024) highlights that adopting a growth mindset enables learners to perceive mistakes as learning opportunities instead of failures. Other methods such as humour and storytelling also alleviate nerves. Viet Vu (2024) shows that speakers who incorporated non-verbal cues and humour reported lower anxiety levels, since these techniques fostered audience connection and reduced formality. Post-Presentation Reflection Reflecting after a presentation is crucial for long-term improvement. According to Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning cycle, reviewing performance allows learners to adapt and refine their skills. Hafiz (2015) found that self-reflection journals enable students to identify triggers of nervousness and track progress. Similarly, Apriani, Puspitasari and Fathudin (2025) observed that systematic feedback loops fostered continuous development in public speaking among EFL learners. Practical Strategies for Overcoming Nerves Drawing from academic literature and professional practices, the following strategies are consistently effective: Preparation and rehearsal – Being well-prepared reduces uncertainty (Marshall & Rowland, 1998). Breathing exercises – Practising diaphragmatic breathing calms the nervous system (Lamarca, 2023). Gradual exposure – Start with small groups, then scale to larger audiences (Carlisle et al., 2025). Reframing thoughts – Replace negative self-talk with affirmations (“I am sharing valuable insights”) (Raja, 2017). Audience engagement – Asking rhetorical questions or using humour creates rapport (Viet Vu, 2024). Use of technology – VR platforms provide safe spaces to rehearse (Pertaub et al., 2002). Peer support – Group presentations distribute responsibility and provide reassurance (Rabbiani, 2024). Presentation nerves are a natural part of public speaking, but they need not be debilitating. With the right strategies—preparation, reframing, breathing, and reflection—individuals can transform anxiety into confidence. Audiences are rarely there to criticise; rather, they want to listen, learn, and engage. By integrating insights from textbooks, journal studies, and modern technologies such as VR, it becomes clear that managing public speaking anxiety is less about eliminating nerves altogether and more about harnessing them constructively. With practice and reflection, confidence grows, and what was once a source of fear becomes an invaluable opportunity for personal and professional growth. References Apriani, N., Puspitasari, D. & Fathudin, A.U. (2025). Overcoming challenges in public speaking: A journey of self-improvement. International Journal of Education, Language and Teaching. Available at: https://ijelt.com/index.php/ijelt/article/view/29. Bodie, G.D. (2010). A racing heart, rattling knees, and ruminative thoughts: Defining, explaining, and treating public speaking anxiety. Communication Education, 59(1), pp.70-105. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634520903443849. Carlisle, D.D.E., Gillies, M., Park, S. & Cheng, Z. (2025). Reducing foreign language anxiety through repeated exposure to a customizable VR public speaking application. Frontiers in Virtual Reality. https://doi.org/10.3389/frvir.2025.1519409. Hafiz, R. (2015). Strategies for overcoming fear to become an elegant presenter. Strategies. CORE. Available at: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/234626712.pdf. Ireland, C. (2020). Apprehension felt towards delivering oral presentations: A case study of accountancy students. Accounting Education, 29(5), pp.475-494. https://doi.org/10.1080/09639284.2020.1737548. Inyai, C. (2024). Support guidelines to promote growth mindsets in public speaking for upper secondary EFL students. Chulalongkorn University. Available at: https://digital.car.chula.ac.th/chulaetd/12546/. Jurin, R.R., Roush, … Read more

Presentation Skills: A Vital Component of Academic Communication and Professional Development

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Oral presentations are a core aspect of modern academic and professional life. Although many students feel anxious when asked to present, the ability to convey ideas verbally is crucial in university studies and future employment. Unlike written assignments, oral presentations demand not only mastery of content but also confidence, structure, and delivery. This essay explores presentation skills – the purposes of oral presentations, strategies for preparation and delivery, methods of assessment, and their long-term value, drawing from both academic research and practical guidelines. Why Oral Presentations Matter Oral presentations serve multiple purposes in higher education. Firstly, they provide a platform to stimulate discussion and engage peers in academic dialogue (Marshall & Rowland, 1998). For example, in seminars, presentations allow students to share research findings and initiate debates that enrich group learning. Secondly, they are an exercise in transferable skills, developing communication abilities essential in the workplace (Grant-Smith, Cathcart & Williams, 2016). Thirdly, they act as alternative assessments to written essays, evaluating students’ ability to organise and present arguments concisely (García-Ros, 2011). Finally, oral presentations are common in job interviews and professional settings, where candidates must demonstrate confidence and persuasion (Kerby & Romine, 2009). Assessment of Oral Presentations Assessment typically focuses on content, organisation, use of resources, and delivery (Northedge, 1990). Rubrics have been widely developed to ensure fair and consistent evaluation. García-Ros (2011) validated an assessment rubric that balanced holistic and analytical measures, highlighting the importance of clear criteria. Similarly, Dunbar, Brooks and Kubicka-Miller (2006) argued that performance-based evaluation rubrics improve the reliability of assessing communication skills. Self- and peer-assessment are also increasingly applied. Aryadoust (2015) demonstrated that peer evaluation helps students calibrate their judgement and develop reflective skills. However, research shows challenges in ensuring objectivity, as factors like likeability can influence peer assessment outcomes (Aryadoust, 2017). A mixed model combining teacher, peer, and self-assessment has been recommended for reliability and student engagement (De Grez, Valcke & Roozen, 2012). Preparing an Oral Presentation Preparation is the cornerstone of a successful presentation. Students should start by analysing the topic, narrowing the focus, and developing a guiding question to prevent overly descriptive content (Marshall & Rowland, 1998). It is vital to identify main points, establish a logical structure, and prioritise clarity over excessive detail. Using prompt cards with keywords rather than full scripts promotes a more engaging and natural delivery (Northedge, 1990). Visual aids such as PowerPoint slides, diagrams, and videos enhance understanding and maintain attention (Valcke & Roozen, 2009). However, technology should support rather than dominate the presentation. Being familiar with equipment in advance avoids last-minute technical issues. For example, in engineering education, Galván-Sánchez (2017) developed rubrics to assess oral communication supported by multimedia, showing that appropriate visual integration strengthens both teaching and assessment. Practice and Delivery Effective delivery requires both practice and awareness of non-verbal communication. Practising multiple times improves fluency and timing, ensuring presentations stay within the recommended 10–15 minutes (García-Ros, 2011). Deep breathing and controlled pacing reduce anxiety and enhance clarity (Rusu & Bozov, 2023). Maintaining eye contact establishes connection with the audience, while variations in tone highlight key points (Tailab & Marsh, 2020). For students with English as a second language (ESL), challenges include language fluency and confidence. Idrus (2016) found that ESL learners benefit from adopting oral communication strategies such as paraphrasing, rehearsing vocabulary, and using visual prompts. Institutions must provide training to support such students in achieving parity with native speakers. Difficulties Faced by Students Many students perceive oral presentations as stressful. Al-Nouh, Abdul-Kareem and Taqi (2015) identified difficulties such as nervousness, limited preparation, and unfamiliarity with audience expectations. Fear of public speaking—commonly termed communication apprehension—is a significant barrier (Taqi et al., 2015). However, integrating regular short presentations into curricula helps normalise public speaking and reduce anxiety over time (Magin & Helmore, 2001). Cultural differences also influence students’ comfort with oral tasks. For example, students from collectivist cultures may feel less inclined to self-promote, affecting their delivery style. Educators should therefore adopt culturally sensitive assessment methods (Benraghda, Mohd Radzuan & Lardhi, 2022). Practical Examples In professional education, embedding oral presentations in courses has demonstrated positive outcomes. Kerby and Romine (2009) redesigned an accounting curriculum to include oral communication tasks, significantly improving students’ confidence and employability. Similarly, Grant-Smith et al. (2016) introduced the 3D Presentation Framework in management education, which combined content, delivery, and audience engagement. This approach allowed students to reflect on strengths and weaknesses systematically. Long-term Benefits Mastering oral presentation skills provides long-term advantages beyond university. In professional environments, employees are often required to pitch ideas, report findings, and persuade stakeholders. Nadolski, Hummel and Rusman (2021) highlighted the role of formative feedback in improving students’ presentation skills, ensuring these competencies carry into careers. The ability to present with clarity and confidence not only enhances academic performance but also supports leadership and collaboration in diverse contexts. Oral presentations are more than just a requirement in higher education; they are a vital component of academic communication and professional development. Through structured preparation, effective delivery, and reflective assessment, students can overcome challenges and acquire a skill set that benefits them throughout their careers. While anxiety and cultural barriers exist, ongoing practice, feedback, and institutional support enable students to thrive as confident communicators. As higher education continues to emphasise employability skills, oral presentation competence will remain indispensable. References Al-Nouh, N.A., Abdul-Kareem, M.M. & Taqi, H.A. (2015) EFL college students’ perceptions of the difficulties in oral presentation as a form of assessment. International Journal of Higher Education, 4(1), pp.136–150. Aryadoust, V. (2015) Self-and peer assessments of oral presentations by first-year university students. Educational Assessment, 20(3), pp.197–218. Aryadoust, V. (2017) Understanding the role of likeability in the peer assessments of university students’ oral presentation skills. Language Assessment Quarterly, 14(4), pp.398–419. Benraghda, A., Mohd Radzuan, N.R. & Lardhi, F.A.S. (2022) Self-assessment as a self-regulated learning approach in English oral presentations. Cogent Education, 9(1). De Grez, L., Valcke, M. & Roozen, I. (2012) How effective are self- and peer assessment of oral presentation skills compared with teachers’ assessments? Active Learning in … Read more

Plagiarism Quiz: Test Your Knowledge

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Plagiarism is one of the most critical issues in academic writing. Universities expect students to demonstrate academic integrity by acknowledging sources properly, paraphrasing effectively, and avoiding misrepresentation of others’ work. The following quiz presents a set of scenarios and questions designed to test your understanding of plagiarism and academic honesty. Correct answers are provided along with explanations, enabling you to reflect on grey areas and develop stronger academic practices. Question 1 Scenario: John changes four words in each paragraph of a borrowed essay to personalise it. Answer Selected: This is acceptable practice at university. Correct Answer: This is a clear case of plagiarism or cheating. Explanation: Merely changing a few words is not true paraphrasing. John is still presenting someone else’s ideas as his own. Question 2 Scenario: Jane discusses an essay with her friend for several hours, adopts all their ideas, and uses them in her essay. Answer Selected: This is acceptable practice. Correct Answer: This is somewhat of a grey area. Explanation: While collaboration may be permitted, using another’s ideas wholesale without critical reflection or adaptation may breach academic integrity, depending on tutor expectations. Question 3 Scenario: Three students share research material but write essays independently. Answer Selected: This is plagiarism. Correct Answer: This is somewhat of a grey area. Explanation: Sharing resources is not automatically plagiarism, but care must be taken to ensure each student develops their own argument. Question 4 Scenario: Jane reuses her friend’s old essay, changing only the name. Answer Selected: Acceptable practice. Correct Answer: This is a clear case of plagiarism or cheating. Explanation: Reusing another person’s essay—even with permission—is plagiarism. Universities often use Turnitin or similar software that can detect recycled assignments. Question 5 Scenario: Students divide writing tasks and then submit separate essays. Answer Selected: Acceptable practice. Correct Answer: This is a clear case of plagiarism or cheating. Explanation: Each student must produce their own original work. Splitting and reusing sections undermines the principle of independent learning. Question 6 Scenario: Alan writes from memory using notes and references but unintentionally mirrors the original source’s wording. Answer Selected: Acceptable practice. Correct Answer: This is a grey area. Explanation: While Alan attempted to paraphrase and cite properly, his wording is too close to the source. He should aim for more substantial rephrasing. Question 7 Scenario: John copies and pastes paragraphs from online and library sources without quotation marks or references. Answer Selected: Acceptable practice. Correct Answer: This is a clear case of plagiarism. Explanation: Copying directly without citation constitutes academic theft. Question 8 Scenario: Bill buys an essay online and submits it. Answer Selected: Acceptable practice. Correct Answer: This is a clear case of plagiarism or cheating. Explanation: This is one of the most serious forms of misconduct, often leading to disciplinary action. Question 9 Scenario: John writes his essay in his own words, adds quotations properly, and cites all sources. Answer Selected: Grey area. Correct Answer: This is acceptable practice. Explanation: This represents correct academic writing, balancing paraphrasing, quotation, and referencing. Question 10 Scenario: Mary writes that Queen Elizabeth II is the current monarch without citing. Answer Selected: Acceptable practice. Correct Answer: This is acceptable practice. Explanation: Facts considered common knowledge (e.g., widely known historical or political facts) do not require citation. Question 11 Scenario: A student translates a Spanish research article into English and submits it as their own essay without acknowledgement. Correct Answer: This is plagiarism. Explanation: Translating does not make the work original. The source must still be cited and referenced. Question 12 Scenario: A student reuses parts of their own essay from a previous course. Correct Answer: This is self-plagiarism. Explanation: Even reusing one’s own work without disclosure breaches integrity. Universities require new submissions unless explicitly allowed. Question 13 Scenario: A student paraphrases correctly but forgets to include an in-text citation. Correct Answer: This is plagiarism. Explanation: Without a citation, the source cannot be identified, and the writer appears to claim ownership of the idea. Question 14 Scenario: A student includes long blocks of quotations with proper citation but little original analysis. Correct Answer: This is poor academic practice. Explanation: Although not plagiarism, over-reliance on quotations demonstrates a lack of critical thinking and synthesis. Question 15 Scenario: During group work, one member writes the essay while others simply submit the same version under their names. Correct Answer: This is plagiarism. Explanation: Each student must contribute fairly. Submitting identical work violates principles of collaborative learning. Question 16 Scenario: A student copies a definition directly from a dictionary without quotation marks but includes a reference. Correct Answer: This is plagiarism. Explanation: Exact wording requires quotation marks, even if the source is cited. Question 17 Scenario: A student reads several articles, synthesises the key ideas, and presents an original perspective with references. Correct Answer: This is excellent academic practice. Explanation: This reflects true synthesis—integrating multiple perspectives to form a unique argument. Question 18 Scenario: A student copies a graph from a government report, pastes it into their essay, and adds a small citation. Correct Answer: This is plagiarism unless permission is granted and the figure is fully referenced. Explanation: Graphs, tables, and figures are intellectual property and must be attributed properly, often requiring captions and copyright acknowledgment. Question 19 Scenario: A student rewrites a paragraph using synonyms only, without changing structure. Correct Answer: This is plagiarism. Explanation: This is patchwriting—too close to the original. Effective paraphrasing requires restructuring and deeper understanding. Question 20 Scenario: A student submits a draft to Turnitin, sees a high similarity index, and revises to reduce copied content. Correct Answer: This is good academic practice. Explanation: Using originality checkers responsibly helps students learn to improve their paraphrasing and referencing. Plagiarism extends beyond outright copying; it includes self-plagiarism, patchwriting, overuse of quotations, and inadequate citation. Through this quiz, we see how some cases are clear-cut, while others are grey areas requiring critical judgement. By practising paraphrasing, summarising, and synthesising, and applying proper Harvard referencing, students can uphold the standards of academic integrity while demonstrating independent thinking.

Writing Skills: A Gateway to Academic Success

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Academic writing is a cornerstone of higher education, enabling students and researchers to communicate ideas effectively, argue critically, and contribute to knowledge within their disciplines. Unlike everyday writing, academic writing requires precision, clarity, formality, and structure (Martin, 2025). For many learners, developing writing skills is both a challenge and an opportunity, as it involves mastering not only language proficiency but also academic conventions, critical thinking, and disciplinary discourse. This article explores the key aspects of writing skills for academic purposes, examining principles, challenges, strategies, and tools that enhance proficiency. Drawing on textbooks, journal articles, and reputable websites, it provides insights into the importance of academic writing and practical ways to improve it. Characteristics of Academic Writing According to Cottrell (2019), academic writing is characterised by objectivity, critical engagement, evidence-based argumentation, and formal style. A central feature is the use of evidence, where claims must be supported by citations from scholarly sources. This is crucial for building credibility and avoiding plagiarism. Research by Nasir et al. (2025) indicates that many students initially struggle with the transition from informal writing styles to the structured approach required in academic contexts. They often overuse colloquial language or fail to organise their arguments coherently. Academic writing, therefore, demands a clear thesis, logical progression, and proper referencing. In addition, disciplinary conventions matter significantly. For instance, writing in the sciences often prioritises conciseness and precision, while humanities essays may value interpretative depth (Martin, 2025). Understanding these distinctions helps students adapt to varied academic expectations. The Importance of Writing Skills in Higher Education Strong writing skills underpin success in academic assessment and professional development. Elegbeleye and Mbaleki (2025) highlight that in the digital era, students must also engage with e-books, online databases, and AI-assisted writing tools, which require not only literacy but also evaluative skills. Moreover, TESL Canada Journal reports that grammar, form, and function contribute to effective communication in technical and scientific writing, where precision and persuasion are equally important (Martin, 2025). Similarly, Nurjannah and Rahmatillah (2025) stress the value of developing mathematical and technical writing for specialised disciplines. In essence, academic writing is not limited to essays—it spans laboratory reports, case studies, dissertations, and professional publications. Thus, writing proficiency influences both academic achievement and career opportunities. Common Challenges in Academic Writing Students often encounter difficulties when adapting to academic writing. These include: Grammar and Syntax Issues – Studies in the Philippines show that many first-year students lack adequate grammatical competence, necessitating targeted intervention (Desales, 2025). Plagiarism and Referencing – Poor knowledge of citation styles leads to accidental plagiarism, undermining academic integrity (Cottrell, 2019). Critical Thinking Deficits – Students may summarise without evaluating sources or fail to build coherent arguments (Phongphinyo, 2025). Digital Distractions – The availability of online paraphrasing tools can encourage shortcuts rather than skill development (Elegbeleye & Mbaleki, 2025). Language Barriers – For international students, English for Academic Purposes (EAP) poses challenges in vocabulary, style, and cultural expectations (Pajević, 2025). Strategies to Improve Academic Writing Skills 1.0 Reading and Exposure Reading extensively improves vocabulary, style, and awareness of disciplinary discourse. Zenawati (2025) emphasises that reading academic articles, textbooks, and online resources exposes students to varied genres and registers, which can be modelled in their own writing. 2.0 Practice and Feedback Continuous practice, coupled with formative feedback, is essential. Ahmadi, Kuhi and Behroozizad (2025) show that interactive writing practices, such as peer review and reflective journals, enhance students’ ability to structure arguments. 3.0 Grammar and Style Development Grammatical competence remains a foundation for clarity. The TESL Canada Journal stresses the role of grammar for technicality and precision in scientific discourse (Martin, 2025). Language centres and writing labs at universities often provide workshops on syntax, sentence variety, and cohesion. 4.0 Using Technology Effectively While concerns exist about overreliance on AI tools, Elegbeleye and Mbaleki (2025) argue that digital platforms such as citation managers (e.g., EndNote, Zotero) and grammar checkers (e.g., Grammarly) can assist in refining writing when used responsibly. 5.0 Engagement with Textbooks and EAP Modules Specialist EAP textbooks, such as Pajević (2025) on ESP and medical writing, align language instruction with disciplinary needs. These resources provide structured activities to enhance academic writing and encourage transferability across contexts. Examples of Academic Writing in Practice To illustrate, consider two scenarios: A Business Studies Student: Producing a business report or strategic analysis requires not only clear writing but also integration of theory and practice. For example, when evaluating a company’s market entry strategy, the student must reference frameworks such as SWOT analysis or Porter’s Five Forces while incorporating up-to-date evidence from industry reports and academic literature (Nurjannah & Rahmatillah, 2025). Proper use of Harvard referencing and a logical structure—executive summary, analysis, recommendations—demonstrate professionalism and academic rigour. A Psychology Student: Writing a lab report requires clarity, concise methodology, and accurate data representation. Errors in referencing or vague hypotheses undermine credibility. Adopting APA style and presenting results with appropriate statistical interpretation ensures professionalism (Cottrell, 2019). A Law Student: Writing a case analysis involves synthesising judicial precedents and constructing an argument. Here, critical reasoning and referencing case law accurately are key. The ability to compare legal arguments demonstrates mastery of academic conventions (IBt3wsQKQe8J, 2025). These examples highlight that academic writing is discipline-specific, but the fundamental skills of clarity, evidence, and structure remain universal. The Role of Collaboration and Peer Learning Collaborative strategies in academic writing have proven effective. Zenawati (2025) found that group discussions and shared writing projects improved students’ comprehension and engagement. Similarly, Huey, Majid and Talkis (2025) reviewed a study skills textbook which stressed collaboration and note-sharing as essential academic survival skills. Group work fosters peer accountability and provides opportunities for learners to negotiate meaning, refine arguments, and adopt varied perspectives. This aligns with constructivist learning theory, which posits that knowledge is co-constructed through social interaction (Vygotsky, 1978, cited in Cottrell, 2019). In conclusion, writing skills for academic purposes are a multifaceted competence involving linguistic proficiency, critical thinking, and adherence to scholarly conventions. Students face challenges such as grammar issues, referencing difficulties, and adapting to digital tools, but … Read more

Understanding and Avoiding Plagiarism in Higher Education

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Plagiarism is one of the most serious academic offences faced by students in higher education. It represents a violation of academic integrity and undermines the values of fairness, originality, and scholarship that universities uphold. According to the Heriot-Watt University Student Guide to Plagiarism, plagiarism is defined as the act of taking another person’s ideas, writings or inventions and using them as one’s own without proper acknowledgement (Heriot-Watt University, 2008). With the increased availability of digital resources, the temptation and opportunities for students to plagiarise have grown significantly, making it essential to understand how plagiarism can be avoided through correct referencing, ethical writing, and awareness of institutional policies. Definition of Plagiarism Plagiarism is not limited to directly copying text. It can include paraphrasing without citation, submitting purchased essays, copying peers’ work, or failing to reference digital sources. Park (2003) highlights that plagiarism is often misunderstood as merely copying text, but it also includes self-plagiarism, where students reuse their previous assignments without disclosure. Similarly, Carroll (2007) explains that plagiarism is both an ethical and an educational issue, as it not only misrepresents authorship but also prevents genuine learning. The Student Guide to Plagiarism stresses that academic work typically involves building upon the ideas of others, which is acceptable provided the sources are correctly acknowledged (Heriot-Watt University, 2008). This aligns with what Pecorari (2008) describes as the intertextual nature of academic writing, where referencing demonstrates scholarly engagement rather than intellectual theft. Forms of Plagiarism Several distinct forms of plagiarism are identified in the literature: Direct Plagiarism – Copying verbatim without quotation marks or citation. Paraphrasing Plagiarism – Rewriting sentences but keeping the original ideas without acknowledgement. Patchwriting – Combining copied text with minor alterations, often common among novice writers (Howard, 1995). Self-Plagiarism – Reusing one’s own past work without declaring it (Walker, 1998). Collusion – Working together with peers but submitting identical work as individual assignments (Marsden et al., 2005). For example, the Heriot-Watt Guide provides a clear case of plagiarism where a student inserted a published passage into an essay without citation, even though only minor words were changed. Such practices demonstrate how plagiarism can occur through both deliberate dishonesty and misunderstandings of academic conventions. Reasons Why Students Plagiarise Research suggests that students plagiarise due to a combination of pressure, ignorance, and opportunity. Devlin and Gray (2007) identify factors such as poor time management, lack of confidence in academic writing, and misunderstanding of referencing rules. Additionally, the growth of online essay mills and “copy-paste” culture makes plagiarism more accessible (Lancaster & Clarke, 2008). A common misconception, as reported in the Heriot-Watt Guide, is that including a source in the bibliography alone is sufficient, even if no in-text citation is provided. This highlights the importance of student training in proper citation practices. Furthermore, international students may face additional challenges due to unfamiliarity with Western referencing styles (Sowden, 2005). Consequences of Plagiarism Plagiarism has severe consequences for both students and institutions. At an individual level, students risk academic penalties ranging from failing assignments to expulsion (Carroll, 2007). At an institutional level, repeated cases of plagiarism can damage a university’s reputation for academic credibility. According to the Heriot-Watt Guide, penalties may include annulment of assessments or compulsory termination of studies. Such outcomes underline the seriousness with which universities address academic misconduct. Preventing Plagiarism Avoiding plagiarism requires proactive strategies that involve students, educators, and institutions. The Heriot-Watt Guide outlines best practices such as using quotation marks for direct quotes, applying proper referencing styles like Harvard, and compiling a comprehensive reference list. Textbooks and journals also emphasise strategies to encourage originality: Education and Training – Carroll (2007) recommends embedding plagiarism awareness in curricula, with explicit instruction on citation skills. Use of Technology – Software like Turnitin enables detection of unoriginal text, acting as both a deterrent and an educational tool (Sutherland-Smith, 2008). Assessment Design – Designing assignments that require critical reflection and personal application reduces opportunities for copying (Bretag, 2013). For example, universities increasingly require students to submit essays alongside reflective commentaries on their writing process, making plagiarism more difficult. Referencing and Academic Integrity Correct referencing is central to avoiding plagiarism. The Harvard referencing system is widely used in the UK and involves citing the author’s surname and year in-text, with full details provided in the reference list (Neville, 2010). The Heriot-Watt Guide explains that referencing serves not only to credit the original author but also to demonstrate the breadth of reading undertaken by the student. Moreover, referencing reflects academic honesty by acknowledging that knowledge is built upon prior scholarship. Pecorari (2008) argues that accurate citation practices foster a culture of transparency and integrity, allowing readers to verify claims and trace the development of ideas. Examples of Good Practice Good academic practice includes: Quoting directly with citation: e.g., “Plagiarism involves the act of taking the ideas, writings or inventions of another person and using these as if they were one’s own” (Heriot-Watt University, 2008, p.1). Paraphrasing with attribution: Paraphrasing maintains the writer’s voice while crediting the source (Neville, 2010). Maintaining a research log: This helps students track sources, preventing mistakes such as forgetting where information was found. For instance, a student writing an essay on higher education funding could cite both Brown (1991) and Smith (2002) to demonstrate awareness of differing viewpoints, as illustrated in the Heriot-Watt Guide. Plagiarism is a complex issue that extends beyond copying text to encompass ethical, cultural, and educational dimensions. Universities play a critical role in educating students about academic integrity while enforcing policies to deter misconduct. Students, on their part, must adopt good referencing habits, manage their time effectively, and seek guidance when in doubt. Ultimately, avoiding plagiarism is not merely about compliance with rules; it reflects a commitment to honesty, fairness, and respect for intellectual labour. By cultivating academic integrity, higher education institutions can ensure that learning remains authentic and meaningful. References Bretag, T. (2013). Challenges in addressing plagiarism in education. PLoS Medicine, 10(12), e1001574. Carroll, J. (2007). A Handbook for Deterring Plagiarism in Higher Education. 2nd ed. Oxford: … Read more

Harvard Referencing System: A Quiz-Based Guide to Test Your Understanding

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Accurate referencing is one of the most important aspects of academic writing. It not only acknowledges the original sources of ideas and information but also strengthens your arguments and demonstrates academic integrity. For many students, however, getting the format right can be challenging. This article presents a quiz-style guide to help you understand the essentials of Harvard referencing, while also exploring why proper citation matters. Each question is followed by the correct answer, along with an explanation to help you learn from common mistakes. Question 1 Which of the following shows the correct format for referencing a book in the Reference section? a) Saunders, MNK, Lewis, P and Thornhill, A (2003) Research Methods for Business Students (3rd edn), Pitman Publishing b) Saunders, MNK, Lewis, P and Thornhill, A (2003) Research Methods for Business Students (3rd edn), London, Pitman Publishing ✅ Correct Answer: Saunders, MNK, Lewis, P and Thornhill, A (2003) Research Methods for Business Students (3rd edn), London, Pitman Publishing Explanation: In the Harvard system, a book reference must include the authors’ surnames and initials, year of publication, title in italics, edition (if not the first), place of publication, and the publisher. The incorrect option is missing the place of publication. Question 2 Which of the following sentences, if used in an essay, should have citations within them? a) Many researchers have stated that students learn best when they actively participate in workshops. b) Last year, the government spent more than five million pounds on the project. c) I would tend to disagree with their viewpoints. d) There are seven days in a week. ✅ Correct Answer: a and b only Explanation: a: Refers to other researchers’ findings → requires a citation. b: Factual, statistical information from an external source → requires a citation. c: Your opinion → does not need a citation. d: Common knowledge → no citation required. Question 3 A work written by John Smith in 2003 should be cited within the text according to the following: ✅ Correct Answer: It might be (Smith, J 2003) if there is another person with the surname Smith in the Reference section. If there is not another Smith, it should be (Smith 2003). Explanation: When two or more authors share the same surname, you should include the initials to avoid confusion. If only one “Smith” appears in your references, then the surname and year are sufficient. Question 4 Why should you include references within a text? a) To give credit where credit is due b) To provide enough information so that the reader can find the original source c) To avoid charges of plagiarism d) To demonstrate that your arguments are supported by evidence ✅ Correct Answer: All of the above Explanation: Referencing shows academic honesty, acknowledges others’ work, allows readers to verify claims, and strengthens your arguments by demonstrating that they are informed by credible sources. Question 5 Which of the following is an example of the Harvard system of referencing within a text? a) Many studies show these conclusions (Doe 2000; Jones 1999; Smith 2003). b) Many studies show these conclusions [1,2,3]. ✅ Correct Answer: a Explanation: The Harvard style uses the author’s surname and year of publication in brackets. The numbering system in option b is an example of the Vancouver referencing style, not Harvard. Question 6 You find an interesting crime statistic from the National Assembly of Wales (NAW) website on 20 February 2006. No author is listed. Which is the correct citation within the text? ✅ Correct Answer: (National Assembly of Wales 2006) Explanation: When no individual author is named, cite the organisation (corporate author) followed by the year of publication. Question 7 If you have found three distinct publications from John Doe written in 1999, 2001 and 2005, and want to mention them in the same sentence, what format should you use? ✅ Correct Answer: (Doe 1999; 2001; 2005) Explanation: When citing multiple works by the same author, list the surname once, followed by the different years separated by semicolons. Question 8 You accessed an article titled ‘RFID: Unlocking high performance in supply chain planning’ by Patrick M Byrne in Logistics Management (September 2005, Vol. 44, Issue 9, pp. 29–30) through EBSCO on 20 February 2006. The URL is given. What is the correct in-text citation? ✅ Correct Answer: (Byrne 2005) Explanation: In-text citations in Harvard style require only the author’s surname and year. Full details, including the article title, journal, volume, issue, pages, and URL, belong in the Reference list. Question 9 You find an article titled ‘Historical Crime Digest’ on the National Assembly of Wales (NAW) website, published in 2006, with no author. What is the correct Reference list format? ✅ Correct Answer: National Assembly of Wales (2006) ‘Historical Crime Digest’ [online] Available from: http://www.wales.gov.uk/subicsu/content/historical/chap2-e.pdf (accessed 20 February 2006) Explanation: For web sources without a personal author, use the corporate author (e.g. National Assembly of Wales), followed by the year, the title in quotation marks, the format ([online]), the URL, and the date accessed. Question 10 You access the article ‘RFID: Unlocking high performance in supply chain planning’ by Patrick M Byrne, published in Logistics Management, Volume 44, Issue 9, pp. 29–30 (September 2005) via EBSCO. What is the correct Reference list format? ✅ Correct Answer: Byrne, Patrick M. (2005) ‘RFID: Unlocking high performance in supply chain planning’, Logistics Management, 44(9), pp. 29–30. Explanation: Journal references in Harvard style require author(s), year, article title in quotation marks, journal title in italics, volume(issue), and page range. Question 11 Which of the following shows the correct format for referencing an e-mail in the Reference section? ✅ Correct Answer: Jones, D (2006) ‘Requested Information’ (e-mail to author) [online]. Explanation: For emails, cite the sender, year, subject line in quotes, followed by (e-mail to author) and [online]. Question 12 A work written by only two authors, such as John Doe and John Smith in 2001, should be cited in the text as: ✅ Correct Answer: (Doe and Smith 2001) Explanation: When citing two authors, include … Read more

Academic Misconduct and Malpractice: Plagiarism, Collusion, Contract Cheating, and the Use of Artificial Intelligence

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Academic misconduct and malpractices are persistent challenges facing higher education institutions worldwide. They undermine the integrity of assessment, damage institutional reputation, and devalue qualifications (Sozon et al., 2024). The increasing accessibility of digital resources and online services has made academic dishonesty more complex and harder to detect. Traditional forms of misconduct such as plagiarism and collusion are now compounded by emerging threats such as contract cheating and the use of artificial intelligence (AI) to generate assignments. This article explores these four critical forms of misconduct, drawing upon academic literature, case studies, and institutional reports to analyse their causes, manifestations, and possible strategies for mitigation. Defining Academic Misconduct and Malpractice Academic misconduct is broadly defined as behaviour that compromises the integrity of learning, teaching, and assessment by gaining an unfair academic advantage (Velliaris, 2019). Malpractice, often used interchangeably, refers to dishonest or unethical academic behaviour, whether intentional or accidental. According to Ali, Sultan and Aboelmaged (2021), misconduct encompasses activities such as cheating, plagiarism, collusion, data fabrication, falsification, and impersonation. The advent of digital platforms, contract cheating services, and AI tools has expanded the scope of misconduct, requiring institutions to rethink traditional academic integrity frameworks (Pellerin & Ogandaga, 2024). Below is a summary of four major forms of academic misconduct and malpractice that university students often, either knowingly or unknowingly, engage in: 1.0 Plagiarism 1.1 Definition and Forms Plagiarism is the presentation of another person’s work, ideas, or words as one’s own without proper acknowledgement. It can take various forms, including copy-and-paste plagiarism, self-plagiarism, paraphrasing without citation, and mosaic plagiarism (Deslauriers, 2025). For example, a student who copies text from a website without citing the source engages in direct plagiarism, while a student who paraphrases a journal article but omits referencing commits implicit plagiarism. 1.2 Consequences and Challenges Plagiarism damages academic credibility and erodes trust between students and institutions. As Ogwueleka (2025) notes, it undermines creativity and critical thinking, reducing the value of higher education qualifications. Detection tools such as Turnitin and emerging AI-based detection systems have helped to identify copied content, but these systems face challenges with paraphrased or AI-generated text (Johnson, 2023). 2.0 Collusion 2.1 Definition and Examples Collusion occurs when students work together inappropriately, submitting joint work as individual effort or receiving unpermitted assistance. Unlike collaboration, which is often encouraged, collusion breaches academic integrity when it obscures individual contribution (Sozon, Alkharabsheh & Pok, 2025). For instance, two students may agree to divide sections of an essay and then submit the combined work as separate submissions, which constitutes collusion. 2.2 Implications Collusion undermines fairness in assessment and creates difficulties for educators in evaluating individual understanding (Velliaris, 2019). It may also damage trust among peers if students perceive inequities in how assessment rules are applied. 3.0 Contract Cheating and Ghostwriting 3.1 Contract Cheating Contract cheating involves students outsourcing their assignments, dissertations, or projects to third parties who complete the work in exchange for payment (Lancaster et al., 2025). This practice has expanded globally due to the rise of online “essay mills” that market academic work directly to students. According to Xu and Li (2023), contract cheating is particularly problematic because it bypasses traditional plagiarism detection software: the purchased work is original but not authored by the student. 3.3 Ghostwriting Ghostwriting is closely related to contract cheating, in which a third party writes work for a student, often for a fee, but without attribution (Möller, 2023). Ghostwriting is considered one of the most severe forms of misconduct because it completely misrepresents a student’s abilities and undermines the credibility of higher education qualifications. 3.4 Real-World Example The UK has taken legislative steps against essay mills, making it illegal to provide or advertise commercial contract cheating services (Lancaster et al., 2025). Despite such regulations, providers continue to operate internationally, often exploiting students’ anxiety about academic performance or language barriers (Deslauriers, 2025). 4.0 The Use of Artificial Intelligence in Academic Work 4.1 Emerging Opportunities and Risks The rise of generative AI tools such as ChatGPT and other large language models presents new challenges for academic integrity. While these technologies can support learning by offering feedback, generating ideas, or aiding in language refinement, they can also be misused for automated essay generation and exam cheating (Lund et al., 2025). Sozon, Alkharabsheh and Fong (2024) highlight that AI blurs the boundaries between legitimate assistance and misconduct, as students may present AI-generated outputs as their own work without attribution. 4.2 Academic Responses Institutions are responding by updating policies, assessment design, and detection tools. Lancaster and Draper (2025) argue that universities must explicitly address AI misuse in academic integrity policies, ensuring that students understand when and how AI can be ethically integrated into their work. 4.3 Example In 2023, several Australian universities shifted back to handwritten exams and in-person assessments after reports of students using generative AI to complete online tests (Nwozor, 2025). This demonstrates the immediate impact of AI on assessment integrity. Addressing Academic Misconduct and Malpractice Preventive Strategies Preventing academic misconduct requires a multi-layered approach: Education and Awareness: Institutions must provide students with clear guidelines on plagiarism, collusion, and acceptable use of AI (Pellerin & Ogandaga, 2024). Assessment Design: Authentic assessments, oral examinations, and project-based tasks reduce opportunities for contract cheating (Velliaris, 2019). Technological Solutions: AI-driven plagiarism detection, authorship verification, and forensic text analysis tools are being developed to identify both human and machine-generated misconduct (Siddhpura & Siddhpura, 2020; Johnson, 2023). Ethical and Cultural Considerations Academic integrity is not only a technical issue but also a cultural and ethical challenge. Deslauriers (2025) argues that institutions should foster a culture of honesty by embedding integrity into teaching and learning rather than relying solely on punitive measures. Moreover, differing cultural understandings of authorship and collaboration require sensitive, context-specific responses (Sozon et al., 2025). Academic misconduct and malpractice threaten the credibility of higher education. Plagiarism, collusion, contract cheating, and the misuse of AI are interconnected issues requiring both preventative and corrective measures. While technology offers tools for detection, the foundation of academic integrity must be built on education, ethical … Read more

Citing and Referencing Using Harvard Referencing System

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The Harvard Referencing System is one of the most widely used citation and referencing styles in academic writing. It ensures that sources are acknowledged properly, helps to avoid plagiarism, and demonstrates academic integrity. This study guide provides a comprehensive overview of how to cite and reference a wide range of sources, using examples and explanations for clarity. 1.0 Assignment Writing In order to produce strong and credible academic work, it is important to base your arguments on a wide range of reliable sources. To do this effectively, you should: Read widely across different types of academic material. This helps you to understand various perspectives and strengthen your arguments. Engage with multiple sources, such as books, journal articles, newspapers, reports, and reputable websites. Drawing on a variety of materials adds depth to your work. Read at the appropriate academic level, ensuring that the sources you choose are scholarly and suitable for higher education study, rather than overly simplified or non-academic. Use good-quality sources that are credible, well-regarded, and relevant to your topic. This ensures that your arguments are well supported and academically sound. 2.0 Citing and Referencing In your assignments, you must demonstrate that you have engaged with relevant and high-quality sources to support your arguments. This is achieved through two essential practices: Providing in-text citations within the body of your work to acknowledge where specific ideas, evidence, or quotations have been taken from. Including a reference list and, where required, a bibliography at the end of your work. It is important to note that: In-text citations are sometimes referred to as in-text references. Reference lists are also commonly known as References. Together, these elements show that your arguments are well founded and that you respect the intellectual property of other authors. 3.0 Why Citing and Referencing? Citing and referencing are fundamental aspects of academic writing, and they serve several key purposes: To acknowledge the work of others and ensure you avoid plagiarism, which is a serious academic offence. To help readers and tutors distinguish between your own original ideas and the material you have drawn from other sources. To demonstrate that you have relied on high-quality and reliable sources, showing the depth and credibility of your research. To improve the credibility, clarity, and overall presentation of your academic work. By citing accurately, you not only give proper credit to other authors but also strengthen your own arguments through evidence-based support. 4.0 Plagiarism Failure to cite and reference ideas, evidence, or quotations from other authors can result in accusations of plagiarism. Plagiarism is defined as presenting someone else’s work as your own. It is considered a form of academic theft and is treated very seriously within higher education. To avoid plagiarism, you must always record accurately and fully reference the details of every source you consult and use in your work. Careful note-taking and consistent referencing practices are essential to maintaining academic integrity. 5.0 Citation and Referencing Styles There are several different systems used in academic writing for citation and referencing. Each discipline or institution may prefer a particular style. The most commonly used include: Harvard style – an author–date system. American Psychological Association (APA) – also an author–date system, widely used in the social sciences. Modern Language Association (MLA) – another author–date system, often used in the humanities. Modern Humanities Research Association (MHRA) – an author–date system, mainly applied in literature and language studies. Chicago, Vancouver, and Footnote styles – all of which are numeric systems, relying on numbers in the text linked to references or footnotes. Important: Always check with your tutor or department which referencing system you are required to use for your assignments. 6.0 The Harvard Referencing Style The Harvard style is one of the most widely used referencing systems in academic writing. It follows the author–date method and is built on three key elements: In-text citations – brief references placed within the body of your text. These usually include the author’s surname, the year of publication, and, where relevant, the page number(s). Reference list – a complete list of all sources you have cited directly in your work. This list should appear at the end of your assignment and be arranged in alphabetical order by author’s surname. Do not separate sources under different categories such as books, journals, newspapers, websites etc. Bibliography – sometimes required in addition to the reference list. A bibliography contains details of all sources consulted, including those you have read but not cited directly in your text. Using these three elements ensures your work is transparent, credible, and academically sound. 7.0 Examples of In-text Citations In the Harvard style, an in-text citation is used whenever you refer to someone else’s ideas, data, or words. These citations typically include the author’s surname, the year of publication, and, where necessary, the page number(s). Examples include: According to Clegg (1985, p.543)… Barter (2003, p.258) has shown that… Evans and Foxall (2006, p.76) point out that… Reed et al. (2008, pp.30–31) suggested that… Several authors (Ray, 2002, p.23; Smith, 2004, p.70) conclude… A number of studies (Gray, 2002; Toms, 2004; Lee, 2008) have considered the Scottish economy… Other examples: 25% of manufacturing jobs were lost in the 1980s (Jones, 1995, p.64). A recent survey (Gordon, 2001, pp.21–28) has found… 8.0 Useful Phrases for Introducing Citations When incorporating the ideas of others into your work, it is important to introduce references smoothly. The following phrases can help you do this effectively: Saunders (2010) defined/ proposed/ indicated/pointed out/suggested/ showed/stated/explained/analysed/claimed……that…. As defined/proposed/indicated/suggested/showed/stated/explained/analysed/claimed/ pointed out by Saunders (2010)…. According to Saunders (2010)… To quote from Saunders (2010)… Note: When citing a work with three or more authors, use et al. (in italics) after the first author’s surname. 9.0 When Must I Provide a Citation? A citation is required whenever you make use of another author’s work, ideas, or findings. You must provide a reference when you: Quote directly from another source, using the author’s exact words. Paraphrase by rewriting an author’s ideas in your own words. Summarise arguments, theories, … Read more

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