Mohammad T Islam (BSc, MBA, MEd)

Consumer Behaviour: Customer Preferences and Decision-Making Explained

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Customer service is a critical component of organisational success, encompassing strategies, skills, and practices designed to understand and meet the evolving needs of customers. It involves building meaningful relationships, enhancing customer experiences, and ensuring long-term satisfaction. As Solomon (2019) highlights, the field of customer service draws on interdisciplinary knowledge, including psychology, management, technology, and communication. By aligning with customer expectations, businesses can strengthen loyalty, gain a competitive advantage, and ensure sustainability. This article explores ten key areas of customer service, integrating insights from textbooks, journal articles, and reputable sources. 1.0 Customer Behaviour and Psychology Understanding customer behaviour and psychology is central to anticipating needs and shaping customer experiences. Consumer behaviour theories emphasise how perceptions, motivations, and decision-making processes influence purchasing actions (Solomon, 2019). For example, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is often applied in customer service to identify whether customers are motivated by basic functionality, social belonging, or self-actualisation. Retailers like Amazon exemplify this by using behavioural data to predict preferences and personalise shopping experiences. By studying customers’ purchase histories and browsing patterns, Amazon can recommend products that align with psychological needs, enhancing satisfaction and repeat purchases. 2.0 Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Customer Relationship Management (CRM) combines technology and strategy to manage interactions across the customer journey. As Peppers and Rogers (2016) note, CRM systems capture and analyse customer data, enabling businesses to personalise interactions and foster loyalty. For instance, Salesforce, a leading CRM platform, integrates customer insights with marketing automation, allowing firms to provide tailored recommendations and consistent service across touchpoints. CRM has become a cornerstone of modern service strategies, particularly in industries such as banking and e-commerce, where strong relationships are key to differentiation. 3.0 Service Quality Management Delivering high-quality service is essential for long-term competitiveness. Parasuraman et al. (1988) developed the SERVQUAL model, which measures service quality across five dimensions: tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance, and empathy. Organisations use this model to identify service gaps and implement improvement initiatives. An example can be seen in the airline industry, where carriers like Singapore Airlines are renowned for consistently exceeding expectations in responsiveness and empathy. Service quality management in such contexts ensures not only operational efficiency but also emotional connections with customers. 4.0 Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty Customer satisfaction and loyalty are influenced by multiple factors, including product quality, responsiveness, and brand reputation (Oliver, 1997). Companies that achieve high satisfaction rates often experience repeat business and positive word-of-mouth. For example, Apple has cultivated strong loyalty by consistently delivering innovative products and offering a seamless ecosystem of devices and services. Research indicates that loyal customers are more profitable, as they purchase more frequently and are less price-sensitive (Kumar, 2014). Therefore, measuring satisfaction through surveys and monitoring loyalty indicators is vital for strategic planning. 5.0 Customer Service Training and Development Frontline employees are the face of customer service. According to Gustafsson et al. (2017), training and development programmes equip employees with skills such as active listening, empathy, and problem-solving. Well-trained employees are more confident in handling diverse situations, contributing to a positive brand image. For instance, Ritz-Carlton Hotels invests heavily in employee empowerment and service training, enabling staff to make on-the-spot decisions to resolve guest issues. Such investments in human capital reflect a service culture that prioritises excellence and customer delight. 6.0 Service Recovery and Complaint Management Even the best organisations face service failures. Effective service recovery strategies can turn negative experiences into opportunities for loyalty reinforcement. Tax et al. (1998) highlight that quick, empathetic, and fair complaint handling can restore trust and even strengthen customer relationships. For example, Zappos is well-known for its hassle-free returns policy and rapid issue resolution, which often convert dissatisfied customers into loyal advocates. Empowering employees to resolve complaints promptly and implementing feedback loops to prevent recurrence are essential components of complaint management. 7.0 Cross-Cultural Communication and Global Customer Service In today’s globalised markets, cross-cultural communication is vital. Hofstede (1980) notes that cultural differences in values and communication styles influence service interactions. For example, high-context cultures such as Japan rely heavily on implicit communication and respect, while low-context cultures like the United States emphasise directness and efficiency. Multinational companies like McDonald’s adapt customer service strategies to reflect local customs. In India, for instance, the company employs local staff who understand cultural norms and language, ensuring more effective service delivery. 8.0 Technology and Innovation in Customer Service Technology has revolutionised customer service delivery. Johnston and Kong (2011) argue that digital tools enhance efficiency, accessibility, and convenience. Chatbots, AI-driven support, and self-service platforms allow organisations to meet demand 24/7 while reducing operational costs. A notable example is HSBC, which introduced AI-powered chat assistants to handle routine banking queries, freeing human agents to focus on complex issues. Similarly, the rise of omnichannel service platforms ensures consistency across social media, apps, and call centres. 9.0 Customer Analytics and Insights Customer analytics involves collecting and analysing data to understand customer behaviour and predict trends. Kumar (2014) highlights that customer lifetime value (CLV) is a critical metric for assessing long-term profitability. Retail chains like Tesco utilise loyalty card data to analyse purchasing patterns, enabling personalised promotions and inventory planning. By leveraging analytics, companies not only enhance customer experiences but also optimise internal efficiency and profitability. 10.0 Ethics and Customer Service Excellence Finally, ethics play a central role in customer service excellence. Ethical conduct requires fairness, honesty, and respect in all interactions (Solomon, 2019). Ethical dilemmas often arise in areas such as data privacy, upselling, or handling vulnerable customers. For example, the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in Europe has heightened expectations for transparent and responsible handling of customer data. Companies that prioritise ethical service practices not only avoid legal risks but also build stronger trust-based relationships with customers. The field of customer service is broad, interdisciplinary, and constantly evolving. From understanding customer psychology to leveraging technology and analytics, organisations must embrace a holistic approach to deliver exceptional service. As demonstrated by global leaders like Amazon, Apple, and Ritz-Carlton, effective customer service strategies drive satisfaction, loyalty, and long-term profitability. The integration of CRM systems, … Read more

Marketing: Overview of Key Study Topics Within the Field

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Marketing is a multifaceted discipline concerned with the processes of creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large (Kotler & Armstrong, 2020). It is not limited to advertising or selling but encompasses a broader scope, including consumer behaviour analysis, market segmentation, branding, and relationship management. At its core, marketing seeks to understand the needs and wants of consumers and to develop strategies that align an organisation’s offerings with these demands (Baker & Hart, 2020). The field of marketing has evolved significantly in response to technological, economic, and societal changes. Today’s marketers must balance traditional approaches with innovative digital strategies to remain competitive in dynamic markets. This overview highlights the key components of marketing and discusses their relevance in contemporary practice. 1.0 Market Research Market research forms the foundation of effective marketing decision-making. It involves the systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of data about markets, consumers, and competitors (Malhotra, Birks, & Wills, 2021). Methods include quantitative approaches such as surveys and experiments, as well as qualitative methods like interviews, focus groups, and ethnographic studies. Research enables organisations to uncover insights into consumer needs, preferences, motivations, and purchase behaviours, allowing marketers to design products and strategies that resonate with target audiences. Furthermore, in an era of big data, organisations increasingly rely on advanced analytics and machine learning tools to process large datasets and generate actionable insights (Wedel & Kannan, 2016). 2.0 Target Market Identification Once insights are gathered, marketers must identify their target markets. This involves segmenting a larger market into sub-groups of consumers with shared characteristics such as demographics, psychographics, or behavioural traits (Baker & Hart, 2020). By employing segmentation, targeting, and positioning (STP) strategies, firms can tailor their value propositions to meet the needs of specific customer groups. For example, luxury brands often target affluent consumers using premium pricing strategies, while budget airlines appeal to cost-conscious travellers through low fares and functional service models (Kotler et al., 2019). 3.0 Product Development and Management Marketing is closely linked to product development and lifecycle management. Marketers play a role in identifying unmet needs, working alongside research and development (R&D) teams to design innovative products or services. They also develop pricing strategies, manage distribution, and oversee the product’s performance throughout its lifecycle (Czinkota & Ronkainen, 2019). The product lifecycle model—comprising introduction, growth, maturity, and decline—guides marketers in adapting their strategies at different stages (Levitt, 1965). For example, during the growth stage, emphasis may shift towards building brand loyalty, whereas in maturity, marketers often employ differentiation tactics to maintain market share. 4.0 Brand Management A strong brand identity is one of the most valuable assets an organisation can possess. Brand management involves developing a clear positioning strategy, crafting consistent messages, and establishing memorable visual identities (Keller, 2016). Brands influence consumer perceptions, engender trust, and create emotional connections. Successful brand management extends beyond logos and slogans—it encompasses the entire customer experience. Apple, for instance, has cultivated a global brand synonymous with innovation, quality, and premium design (Schmitt, 2012). 5.0 Advertising and Promotion Advertising and promotion are key communication tools for marketers. They involve persuading and informing audiences through a mix of traditional media (television, radio, print) and digital channels (social media, online video, display advertising) (Belch & Belch, 2020). The effectiveness of promotional campaigns depends on their ability to deliver a consistent message across channels, often through integrated marketing communications (IMC) strategies. Promotional activities also include sales promotions, sponsorships, and experiential marketing, each serving to reinforce brand awareness and influence consumer decision-making. 6.0 Digital Marketing The rise of the internet has transformed marketing practice. Digital marketing leverages channels such as websites, search engines, social media, email, and mobile applications to reach and engage consumers (Chaffey & Ellis-Chadwick, 2019). Key strategies include: Search Engine Optimisation (SEO): Enhancing website visibility on search engines. Pay-Per-Click (PPC) advertising: Paid online ads targeted at specific demographics. Email marketing: Direct communication for customer engagement and loyalty. Mobile marketing: Leveraging apps, push notifications, and SMS for consumer interaction. Digital marketing offers advantages in terms of cost-effectiveness, personalisation, and real-time analytics, making it indispensable in contemporary practice. 7.0 Content Marketing Content marketing focuses on creating and distributing valuable, relevant, and consistent content to attract and retain a defined audience (Pulizzi & Barrett, 2019). Examples include blog posts, videos, infographics, white papers, and podcasts. The aim is not to overtly sell but to educate, entertain, or inspire consumers, thereby building trust and loyalty. A successful example is Red Bull’s use of extreme sports content, which aligns with its brand values and drives global recognition (Rowley, 2008). 8.0 Social Media Marketing Social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter (now X), LinkedIn, and TikTok provide interactive environments where brands can engage directly with consumers (Hollensen, 2020). Social media marketing enables two-way communication, allowing companies to build brand communities and gather consumer feedback. However, managing a brand on social media requires careful planning, as consumer-generated content can influence brand reputation positively or negatively. Crisis management strategies are therefore critical in this sphere. 9.0 Public Relations (PR) Public relations (PR) involve managing the flow of information between an organisation and its stakeholders to build and maintain a favourable reputation (Cornelissen, 2021). PR activities include media relations, community engagement, corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives, and crisis communication. Effective PR not only shapes public perception but also supports long-term brand equity. For example, companies like Patagonia leverage CSR and sustainability-driven PR to reinforce their commitment to environmental causes, thereby strengthening consumer trust. 10.0 Marketing Analytics and Measurement The increasing availability of data and analytics tools has transformed how marketers evaluate performance. Marketing analytics involves tracking metrics such as conversion rates, customer acquisition costs, and return on investment (ROI) (Kumar, 2019). Advanced analytics enable predictive modelling, customer segmentation, and attribution modelling, allowing organisations to allocate resources more effectively. Companies that invest in robust analytics capabilities are better positioned to make data-driven decisions that enhance both customer satisfaction and financial performance. Marketing is a dynamic, strategic discipline that extends beyond mere … Read more

Strategic Management: Overview of Key Study Topics Within the Field

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Strategic management is a systematic process that involves the formulation, implementation, and evaluation of actions and initiatives aimed at achieving an organisation’s long-term objectives (David, 2021). By aligning an organisation’s resources and capabilities with its mission, vision, and goals, strategic management provides a comprehensive framework for navigating an ever-evolving business environment. Organisations that excel in strategic management maintain a competitive advantage, ensuring long-term success and sustainability. This article explores the key components of strategic management, offering a comprehensive understanding of how each contributes to the overall strategy process. From setting objectives to adapting to changes in the external environment, each step ensures that organisational efforts are aligned toward achieving strategic goals. 1.0 Setting Objectives Setting clear, specific, and measurable objectives is the foundation of effective strategic management. Objectives should adhere to the SMART criteria, meaning they are Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound (Wheelen and Hunger, 2020). These objectives serve as a navigational tool for an organisation’s decision-making and performance assessment. To establish strategic direction, organisations must define a clear mission and vision. The mission statement outlines the organisation’s core purpose, whereas the vision articulates its long-term aspirations. Aligning SMART objectives with mission and vision statements enables a structured roadmap that ensures clarity and purpose across all levels of the organisation (Hitt, Ireland and Hoskisson, 2021). For instance, multinational corporations like Unilever set both financial and non-financial objectives, measuring success through profitability, market share, and corporate social responsibility (CSR). Clear objectives also support performance measurement, enabling continuous monitoring and adjustment when needed. 2.0 External Environment Analysis The external environment significantly influences an organisation’s strategic choices. Understanding external forces helps managers identify opportunities and threats that could affect long-term viability. Tools such as SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) and PESTEL analysis (Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental, and Legal factors) are instrumental for evaluating the macro-environmental context (Barney and Hesterly, 2019). A comprehensive external analysis enables firms to anticipate market trends, respond to technological advancements, and adapt to socio-economic shifts. For example, the increasing emphasis on sustainability and digitalisation has driven companies like Tesla and IKEA to align strategies with environmental innovation and renewable energy initiatives (Grant, 2019). Conversely, failure to anticipate environmental or regulatory shifts—such as those caused by Brexit or the COVID-19 pandemic—can result in strategic setbacks. 3.0 Internal Analysis While external analysis identifies external influences, internal analysis evaluates the organisation’s internal environment, including its resources, capabilities, and competencies. According to the Resource-Based View (RBV), sustainable competitive advantage arises from resources that are valuable, rare, inimitable, and non-substitutable (Grant, 2019). Internal analysis involves assessing key functional areas such as financial health, operational efficiency, human resources, and organisational culture. Identifying core competencies—activities or processes that provide a unique competitive advantage—is essential (Hitt, Ireland and Hoskisson, 2021). For example, Toyota’s lean manufacturing system exemplifies a core competency that enhances operational efficiency and product quality. Similarly, Google’s innovation culture supports continuous product development, enabling it to dominate the technology industry. Internal analysis also highlights weaknesses. A company might excel in marketing but lag in logistics, prompting investment in supply chain management or digital infrastructure to improve efficiency. 4.0 Industry and Sector Analysis An industry and sector analysis provides deeper insight into the competitive dynamics and structural forces shaping an organisation’s operating environment. Michael Porter’s Five Forces Framework remains a cornerstone for understanding industry structure, focusing on competitive rivalry, threat of new entrants, bargaining power of suppliers, bargaining power of buyers, and threat of substitutes (Porter, 1985, cited in Barney and Hesterly, 2019). Analysing these forces enables organisations to evaluate profitability potential and strategic positioning. For instance, the airline industry faces high competitive rivalry and powerful buyers, leading to thin profit margins. In contrast, the pharmaceutical sector benefits from strong barriers to entry due to regulatory constraints and patent protection. Emerging industries such as renewable energy or artificial intelligence (AI) also demonstrate how technological shifts can reshape competitive structures, creating new market opportunities and challenges. By understanding these dynamics, organisations can make informed decisions regarding market entry, pricing, and innovation strategies. 5.0 Strategy Formulation Strategy formulation entails determining how best to allocate organisational resources to achieve strategic objectives. Firms choose among different generic strategies—cost leadership, differentiation, and focus—depending on their strengths and market conditions (Porter, 1985). Cost leadership aims to achieve the lowest operational costs, as demonstrated by Aldi and Ryanair, which offer high value at low prices through operational efficiency. Differentiation focuses on unique products or services, exemplified by Rolls-Royce and Apple, which command premium prices due to perceived quality and innovation. Focus strategies target niche markets, tailoring offerings to specific customer segments. At the corporate level, strategy formulation includes diversification, mergers and acquisitions, and strategic alliances. For instance, Disney’s acquisition of Pixar allowed it to expand into computer-animated films, strengthening its brand and market share (Wheelen and Hunger, 2020). 6.0 Strategy Implementation The success of any strategy depends on effective implementation. This stage involves aligning resources, organisational structures, and culture with strategic objectives. Key enablers include leadership commitment, communication, and change management (Rothaermel, 2020). For example, Apple’s successful launch of the iPhone was underpinned by integrated efforts across design, engineering, and marketing, supported by a culture of innovation. Conversely, strategies often fail due to misalignment between strategy and structure—for instance, when a bureaucratic culture inhibits agility and innovation. Ensuring employees understand their roles in executing strategy fosters engagement and accountability. Effective leaders create a shared vision that aligns with organisational goals, promoting commitment across all levels. 7.0 Strategic Control and Evaluation Strategic control and evaluation are vital for assessing whether a strategy achieves its intended results. Performance metrics such as Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) and benchmarking enable organisations to track progress and identify areas for improvement (Hitt, Ireland and Hoskisson, 2021). The Balanced Scorecard (BSC), developed by Kaplan and Norton (1996), extends beyond financial measures to include customer satisfaction, internal processes, and learning and growth. For example, companies like Siemens and Unilever use BSCs to integrate sustainability and innovation into their performance metrics. Regular strategic reviews help organisations remain … Read more

Powerful Strategies to Build Trust with Your Employees

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Powerful Strategies to Build Trust with Employees Building trust in the workplace is a fundamental leadership priority and a critical driver of organisational success. Trust influences employee engagement, innovation, commitment, and performance. According to Smith (2020), trust forms the foundation of all effective working relationships and is vital for developing a resilient and collaborative organisational culture. When trust is present, employees feel valued, supported, and motivated to contribute meaningfully to shared goals. This article outlines strategies leaders can use to develop and sustain trust, including transparent communication, consistency, empathy, respect, delegation, recognition, positive culture, development opportunities, and leadership integrity. 1.0 Transparent Communication Transparency is central to trust-building. Leaders who communicate openly show integrity and authenticity. Jones (2018) explains that clear and honest communication reduces uncertainty and builds credibility, particularly during organisational change. Sharing strategic goals, challenges, and performance updates helps employees understand how their roles contribute to the organisation. Brown and Davis (2019) found that open communication reinforces perceptions of honesty and strengthens leader–employee relationships. Similarly, Johnson et al. (2021) highlight that responding promptly and meaningfully to employee concerns improves engagement. Example: During the COVID-19 pandemic, companies such as Microsoft used regular virtual town halls to address concerns, which helped maintain morale and reassurance despite widespread uncertainty. 2.0 Consistency Trust grows when leaders demonstrate consistent behaviour over time. Robinson (2017) stresses that unpredictable leadership actions undermine psychological safety, whereas consistency fosters loyalty and reliability. Clark and Evans (2020) found that consistency in communication, behaviour, and decision-making helps create stable expectations and reduces workplace anxiety. Leaders who follow through on commitments show that their words align with their actions. Example: A leader who consistently provides feedback and recognises achievements builds credibility and reinforces a dependable working environment. 3.0 Empathy Empathy—the ability to understand and relate to the feelings of others—is a powerful driver of trust. Adams (2019) argues that empathetic leadership strengthens relationships, increases job satisfaction, and enhances well-being. Wilson (2022) explains that empathetic leaders help employees feel valued beyond their work output. Understanding challenges related to work–life balance, stress, or personal circumstances can significantly strengthen commitment and trust. Example: Jacinda Ardern’s empathetic communication style has been widely praised for fostering unity and trust—leaders in organisations who model similar behaviours create supportive, resilient workplaces. 4.0 Respect Mutual respect reinforces a sense of belonging and value. Taylor and Moore (2018) state that respect promotes psychological safety, enabling employees to voice ideas confidently. Harris (2016) adds that respect involves recognising the unique skills and contributions of each individual, not just courteous behaviour. Example: Inclusive decision-making meetings where employees’ perspectives are actively sought contribute to a culture of respect and shared ownership. 5.0 Delegating Responsibility Delegation shows confidence in employees’ abilities and promotes ownership. Parker (2020) asserts that when leaders delegate effectively, employees develop autonomy and accountability. Garcia et al. (2021) found that trusted employees demonstrate higher motivation and job satisfaction. Example: At Google, employees can allocate time to develop their own ideas, resulting in innovations such as Gmail and Google News. Delegation must be paired with clear expectations and support to avoid uncertainty or stress. 6.0 Recognition and Appreciation Regular, meaningful recognition strengthens trust and commitment. Mitchell (2017) found that appreciation increases morale and productivity, while Anderson and White (2019) emphasise that recognition must be specific and genuine. Companies such as Salesforce have formal recognition programmes that celebrate achievements and create a motivating environment. Simple actions—such as acknowledging good work or expressing gratitude—can significantly enhance trust. 7.0 Positive Work Culture A positive organisational culture encourages collaboration, fairness, and inclusivity. Wilson and Lee (2020) highlight that a supportive culture strengthens engagement and shared values. Baker (2018) notes that teamwork fosters belonging and increases trust across groups. Example: Zappos promotes authenticity and well-being, demonstrating how valuing employees can result in strong organisational loyalty. A positive culture is maintained through consistent behaviours, shared purpose, and respectful interactions. 8.0 Investment in Professional Development Employees trust organisations that support their career growth. Wright (2019) found that training and development reduce turnover and increase loyalty. Peterson (2021) argues that development opportunities signal long-term commitment rather than short-term performance expectations. Example: LinkedIn Learning provides continuous skill development, empowering employees and reinforcing confidence in leadership support. 9.0 Accessibility and Approachability Leaders who are accessible reduce power distances and encourage open communication. Carter (2017) states that approachability makes employees feel comfortable raising concerns or seeking guidance. Turner and Hill (2018) argue that leader accessibility improves relational transparency and trust. Example: Regular informal check-ins or an open-door policy can significantly improve workplace trust levels. 10.0 Lead by Example Leading by example is one of the most influential trust-building behaviours. Hayes (2020) notes that credibility is established when leaders align actions with stated values. Fisher and Rogers (2021) found that leaders who demonstrate humility, accountability, and integrity inspire employees to act similarly. Example: A leader who admits mistakes encourages honesty and reduces fear of failure. Trust is not built through single actions, but through consistent behaviours, respect, communication, and shared purpose. When leaders are transparent, empathetic, supportive, and principled, they cultivate strong, collaborative relationships that enhance motivation, performance, and organisational resilience. Trust, once established, becomes self-reinforcing, strengthening the organisation culturally and competitively. References Adams, L. (2019) ‘The role of empathy in leadership’, Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), pp. 87–102. Anderson, R. and White, S. (2019) ‘The importance of recognition in the workplace’, Journal of Organisational Behaviour, 25(4), pp. 301–315. Baker, E. (2018) ‘Promoting teamwork in the workplace’, Journal of Business Psychology, 32(3), pp. 189–204. Brown, A. and Davis, B. (2019) ‘Enhancing transparency in organisational communication’, Journal of Business Communication, 40(1), pp. 55–68. Carter, M. (2017) ‘Accessibility and leadership effectiveness’, Leadership Quarterly, 22(2), pp. 87–101. Clark, P. and Evans, D. (2020) ‘The role of consistency in leadership’, Journal of Management, 18(3), pp. 145–158. Fisher, K. and Rogers, J. (2021) ‘Modelling desired behaviour in leadership’, Leadership Studies Quarterly, 27(4), pp. 220–235. Garcia, S. et al. (2021) ‘Empowering employees through delegation’, Journal of Applied Psychology, 36(2), pp. 78–93. Harris, G. (2016) ‘Respect in the workplace’, Journal … Read more

The SBI Feedback Model: Essential for Enhancing Talent Growth in Organisations

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Feedback plays a central role in organisational development, talent growth, and leadership effectiveness. Among the most widely adopted frameworks for feedback is the SBI feedback model, developed by the Centre for Creative Leadership (CCL), which stands for Situation, Behaviour, and Impact. The appeal of the model lies in its clarity, specificity, and actionability, enabling managers, educators, and leaders to give feedback in a constructive and impactful way (Kirkland & Manoogian, 1998). This article explores the structure of the SBI feedback model, its advantages and criticisms, and its role in enhancing communication, learning, and talent development within organisations. 1.0 Structure of the SBI Model 1.1 Situation The first stage involves describing the specific situation in which the observed behaviour occurred. Context-setting avoids generalisation and provides the receiver with a clear understanding of the circumstances. For instance: “During yesterday’s project update meeting when timelines were being discussed…”. By grounding feedback in time and place, ambiguity is reduced (Bungay Stanier, 2010). 1.2 Behaviour Next, the observable behaviour is described factually. This ensures feedback is objective and non-judgemental. For example: “…you interrupted two colleagues before they could finish their points…”. Avoiding assumptions about motives (e.g., “you were being disrespectful”) helps maintain psychological safety and increases the likelihood of constructive dialogue (Harrelson, 2024). 1.3 Impact Finally, the impact of the behaviour is articulated, focusing on consequences for the team, project, or organisation. For example: “…this made it difficult for others to share updates and some felt undervalued.” Research suggests that explaining impact helps recipients understand why their actions matter, fostering accountability and reflection (Stone & Heen, 2014). By using this structured flow, the SBI model transforms vague feedback into a clear and actionable message. 2.0 Advantages of the SBI Model The SBI framework is valued for several reasons: Clarity and specificity: It provides a structured approach that reduces the risk of ambiguous or vague feedback (Turregano & Gaffney, 2012). Depersonalisation: By focusing on situations and behaviours rather than character traits, it minimises the perception of feedback as a personal attack (Daaleman et al., 2021). Encourages reflection: Recipients gain insight into the real-world consequences of their behaviour, which supports behavioural change (Carman, 2015). Universality: The model is used across industries, including corporate, healthcare, education, and nonprofit sectors, illustrating its broad applicability (Lee et al., 2021). Supports growth cultures: When embedded in performance management, SBI feedback strengthens a culture of continuous learning and development (Fleenor, Taylor & Chappelow, 2020). 3.0 Criticisms and Limitations While widely endorsed, the SBI method is not without limitations. Over-simplification: Some critics argue that the model’s structure may be too formulaic, neglecting complex relational dynamics in feedback conversations (Jelley, 2021). Risk of rigidity: Leaders may apply it mechanically, creating a “checklist” approach rather than engaging in genuine dialogue (Beenen, 2021). Emotional blind spots: The model emphasises observable behaviour but may downplay emotional intelligence aspects, such as tone, empathy, and relational context (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009). Cultural considerations: In collectivist cultures, direct feedback—even when structured—may still be perceived as confrontational, highlighting the need for cultural adaptation (Carman, 2015). These limitations suggest that SBI should be used as a foundation for dialogue rather than a strict formula. 4.0 SBI and Talent Growth in Organisations The relevance of the SBI model extends to talent development and organisational growth. 4.1 Enhancing Leadership Development Leadership training programmes often integrate SBI as a tool to improve communication, accountability, and coaching effectiveness (Harrison, 2010). Leaders who master SBI provide feedback that is balanced and actionable, supporting emerging leaders in developing self-awareness. 4.2 Performance Appraisal and Coaching SBI is also applied in performance appraisal systems. Rather than vague appraisals such as “good teamwork,” managers can highlight specific incidents of collaboration and describe their positive outcomes, reinforcing desirable behaviours (Wasankar, 2023). 4.3 Creating a Learning Culture The model aligns with learning organisation principles by encouraging continuous dialogue about behaviour and outcomes. This not only supports individual learning but also contributes to organisational knowledge-sharing and collective improvement (Turregano & Gaffney, 2012). 4.4 Application in Healthcare and Education In medical education, the model (and its extension SBIA – Situation, Behaviour, Impact, Action) has been shown to help students receive constructive feedback on clinical skills in ways that enhance reflection and improvement (Lee et al., 2021). Similarly, in higher education, it assists lecturers in giving students specific, actionable academic feedback (Daaleman et al., 2021). 5.0 Example of SBI in Action A real-world example demonstrates the model’s effectiveness: Situation: “During last Friday’s client presentation…” Behaviour: “…you continued to read directly from the slides without engaging with the audience.” Impact: “…the client appeared disengaged, and we risked undermining the team’s credibility.” This structured delivery ensures the employee understands the context, the behaviour, and its consequences, while avoiding accusations. The SBI feedback model remains one of the most effective and practical frameworks for enhancing talent growth and fostering constructive communication within organisations. Its structured approach allows managers, educators, and leaders to provide feedback that is clear, specific, and actionable. Although it has limitations—such as risks of rigidity and cultural mismatch—it continues to be highly valued across sectors. By promoting clarity, reflection, and accountability, SBI strengthens learning cultures and supports sustainable organisational development. For organisations striving to nurture talent and encourage continuous improvement, the SBI model offers not just a framework for feedback, but a foundation for constructive dialogue, growth, and performance excellence. References Aguinis, H. & Kraiger, K. (2009). Benefits of training and development for individuals and teams, organisations, and society. Annual Review of Psychology, 60(1), 451–474. Beenen, M. (2021). Supporting employee skill development from organisational culture perspective. Theseus.fi. [Available at: https://www.theseus.fi/handle/10024/427054] Bungay Stanier, M. (2010). The Coaching Habit: Say Less, Ask More & Change the Way You Lead Forever. Toronto: Box of Crayons Press. Carman, J.G. (2015). Feedback that works for nonprofit organisations. Journal of Nonprofit Education and Leadership, 5(1), 22–36. Daaleman, T.P., Storrie, M., et al. (2021). Medical student leadership development through a business school partnership model. Journal of Leadership and Organisational Development, 42(3), 145–159. Fleenor, J.W., Taylor, S. & Chappelow, C. (2020). Leveraging the … Read more

Sandwiched Feedback: A Balancing Act of Constructive Criticism

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Feedback is a critical component of learning, performance improvement, and workplace communication. Among the many feedback models available, the Sandwich Method, sometimes called the sandwiched feedback approach, has been one of the most widely used in organisational, educational, and clinical settings. The technique involves delivering constructive criticism between two layers of positive reinforcement, creating a more palatable and less confrontational experience for the recipient (Calvello, 2021). This article expands on the structure, advantages, limitations, and applications of the method, while situating it within broader feedback practices. 1.0 Structure of the Sandwich Method The sandwich method can be broken into three stages: 1.1 Positive Opening The process begins with a positive statement. For example, a manager might highlight an employee’s strong teamwork or creativity before moving to the area of concern. This sets a supportive tone, easing the recipient into the feedback and reducing potential defensiveness (Jug, Jiang & Bean, 2019). Crucially, the praise must be specific and genuine; insincere compliments risk undermining the trust required for constructive dialogue (Bee & Bee, 1998). 1.2 Constructive Core The middle of the feedback “sandwich” is the constructive critique. This is where the communicator identifies areas requiring improvement. Research suggests that this stage must be clear, behaviour-focused, and evidence-based to avoid misinterpretation (Brown & Cooke, 2009). For example, rather than stating “your presentation was weak,” a leader might specify: “the presentation contained useful insights, but the slides were text-heavy, which reduced audience engagement.” By focusing on behaviours rather than personality traits, the feedback maintains a developmental orientation (Orsini et al., 2022). 1.3 Positive Conclusion The final layer is another positive or encouraging comment. This can involve recognising an employee’s commitment, expressing confidence in their capacity to improve, or reiterating strengths. The closing positivity aims to leave the recipient motivated and supported, rather than discouraged (Miles, 2022). 2.0 Advantages of the Sandwich Method The sandwich technique remains popular across many industries because of its psychological benefits. Reduces defensiveness: The initial positive statement cushions the impact of criticism, making it less likely to trigger defensive reactions (Calvello, 2021). Promotes motivation: Concluding with encouragement increases the likelihood of the recipient embracing the criticism and acting on it (Tripathy, 2021). Strengthens relationships: Used skilfully, the method enhances perceptions of support and care, which can preserve and even improve workplace relationships (Miftari, Lokaj & Hajdari, 2023). Accessible and adaptable: Because of its straightforward structure, the technique can be used in both professional settings (e.g., appraisals) and educational contexts (e.g., teacher-student dialogue) (Esmaeeli et al., 2023). 3.0 Criticisms of the Sandwich Method Despite its popularity, the sandwich method is not without serious limitations. Dilution of message: Critics argue that the constructive element can become blurred or downplayed if the recipient focuses only on the positive components (Bressler & Von Bergen, 2014). Predictability: Repeated use creates a formulaic pattern. Employees may come to view the initial praise as disingenuous, bracing themselves for criticism that inevitably follows (Henley & DiGennaro Reed, 2015). Potential confusion: If the positive and negative elements are not clearly linked, recipients may leave uncertain about the intended message (Miles, 2022). Cultural mismatch: In some cultural contexts, directness is valued over indirectness, meaning the sandwich method may be seen as patronising or evasive (Ramani et al., 2018). Psychologist Ian James (2015) went so far as to call the model the “rightful demise of the sh*t sandwich”, arguing it can trivialise serious feedback and hinder genuine dialogue. 4.0 Applications in Practice 4.1 Workplace Settings In organisational communication, the sandwich method remains common in performance appraisals, peer reviews, and leadership coaching. Studies show it is especially helpful for managers inexperienced in giving feedback, as the structure provides a “safe script” (Jug, Jiang & Bean, 2019). 4.2 Education In education, especially in higher and further education, the sandwich method has been employed to help students accept criticism constructively (Esmaeeli et al., 2023). For instance, clinical educators often use it to deliver sensitive feedback to trainees while maintaining a supportive relationship (Brown & Cooke, 2009). 4.3 Public Administration and Service Professions Miftari et al. (2023) note that in public administration, where organisational culture may differ from corporate environments, sandwich feedback helps balance accountability with staff morale. 5.0 Alternatives and Evolving Approaches While the sandwich method remains widely used, scholars recommend alternative or complementary strategies: Pendleton’s Rules: A model often used in medical education where learners first highlight what they did well before the instructor adds areas for improvement (Schartel, 2012). Reflective Feedback: Encourages dialogue rather than one-way communication, helping recipients to self-identify strengths and weaknesses (Ramani et al., 2018). Constructive-Positive Feedback: Henley and DiGennaro Reed (2015) found that altering the sequence of feedback (e.g., starting with constructive before ending with positive) sometimes improves message retention and engagement. These approaches indicate that while the sandwiched feedback technique has its place, it should be used judiciously and adapted to context. The Sandwich Method of feedback is both celebrated and criticised. On one hand, it can reduce defensiveness, motivate change, and preserve relationships. On the other, it risks diluting important messages, becoming predictable, and creating confusion if used mechanically. Ultimately, its effectiveness lies not in the formula itself but in the authenticity, clarity, and contextual appropriateness of its application. As workplace cultures become increasingly diverse, feedback must balance directness with empathy, ensuring that employees and learners not only hear constructive criticism but feel supported in acting upon it. Rather than relying exclusively on the sandwich approach, organisations and educators should view it as one tool among many, adapting their feedback strategies to suit the recipient, the relationship, and the context. References Bee, R. & Bee, F. (1998). Constructive Feedback. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Bressler, M. & Von Bergen, C. (2014). The sandwich feedback method: Not very tasty. Journal of Behavioral Studies in Business, 7, 1–14. [Available at: http://homepages.se.edu/cvonbergen/files/2012/11/The-Sandwich-Feedback-Method_Not-very-tasty.pdf] Brown, N. & Cooke, L. (2009). Giving effective feedback to psychiatric trainees. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 15(3), 123–129. [https://doi.org/10.1192/apt.bp.107.004820] Calvello, M. (2021). The Feedback Sandwich: Should You Use It? Fellow Blog. [Available at: https://fellow.app/blog/feedback/the-feedback-sandwich-should-you-use-it-pros-and-cons/] … Read more

Entrepreneurship: Overview of Key Study Topics Within the Field

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Entrepreneurship is a multidimensional field that plays a vital role in fostering economic growth, technological progress, and social transformation. At its core, entrepreneurship refers to the recognition, evaluation, and exploitation of opportunities to create value (Shane & Venkataraman, 2000). Beyond simply starting a business, it represents a mindset and process that drives innovation, generates employment, and enhances competitiveness within economies (Kuratko & Audretsch, 2009). Scholars emphasise that entrepreneurs are the catalysts of change, capable of shaping industries and societies through their ideas and ventures (Casson, 2008). The Entrepreneurial Mindset and Characteristics One of the foundational concepts in entrepreneurship is the entrepreneurial mindset. This mindset is characterised by creativity, resilience, adaptability, and risk-taking (Ratten, 2010). Research shows that entrepreneurs are often more comfortable with ambiguity and uncertainty compared to non-entrepreneurs (Bailetti, 2012). For example, Elon Musk demonstrates resilience and risk appetite in industries such as electric vehicles and space exploration, despite immense challenges. Traits such as self-efficacy, innovation orientation, and proactiveness have also been linked to entrepreneurial success (Carlsson et al., 2013). Understanding and developing these traits are crucial for aspiring entrepreneurs and for policymakers designing entrepreneurship education programmes (Fayolle & Loi, 2021). Opportunity Recognition and Idea Generation Opportunity recognition lies at the heart of entrepreneurial activity. Entrepreneurs identify gaps in the market, unmet consumer needs, and emerging trends, which can be transformed into viable ventures (Montiel-Campos, 2023). This process is often described as entrepreneurial alertness, referring to the ability to scan environments and spot valuable opportunities (Ardichvili et al., 2003). For instance, the rise of digital platforms such as Airbnb and Uber emerged from recognising inefficiencies in hospitality and transportation markets. Scholars argue that opportunity recognition is influenced by prior knowledge, social networks, and cognitive styles (Aldrich & Zimmer, 1986; Gómez-Gras & Mira-Solves, 2010). Business Planning and Strategy An effective business plan is essential to transform opportunities into profitable ventures. It outlines the vision, mission, competitive strategy, operations, and financial forecasts of the business (Barringer & Ireland, 2016). Strategic management principles, such as those outlined by Hitt et al. (2008), stress the importance of aligning internal resources with external opportunities. Moreover, the lean start-up method emphasises iterative experimentation, testing hypotheses with minimum viable products (MVPs) before committing significant resources (Ries, 2011). For example, Dropbox initially tested demand by launching a demo video rather than building the full product, validating its idea before scaling. Market Research and Validation Market research enables entrepreneurs to assess demand, customer preferences, and competitor behaviour. It reduces uncertainty and provides data for strategic decision-making (Zikmund et al., 2013). Validation processes—such as prototyping, pilot testing, and customer feedback—ensure that products meet real market needs. For instance, Tesla validated consumer appetite for sustainable mobility before mass production (Losoncz & Perényi, 2018). In addition, digital analytics tools today allow entrepreneurs to gather customer insights in real-time, providing an advantage in fast-changing industries (Kotler et al., 2017). Funding and Financing Securing adequate funding is often a major challenge. Entrepreneurs can pursue different avenues such as bootstrapping, angel investors, venture capital, crowdfunding, and bank loans (Mason & Stark, 2004). The choice depends on the venture’s stage of growth and capital intensity. For example, early-stage ventures may rely on friends and family or crowdfunding, while technology-based start-ups often seek venture capital to scale rapidly. Scholars also note the growing role of impact investors who fund ventures with social and environmental missions (Kraus et al., 2014). Legal and Regulatory Considerations Navigating legal frameworks is essential for sustainable entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurs must consider business registration, contracts, intellectual property (IP) rights, licences, and tax compliance (Hitt et al., 2008). Intellectual property, in particular, is critical for knowledge-intensive sectors such as biotechnology and software (Zahra et al., 2000). For instance, patent protection has been central to pharmaceutical start-ups in ensuring returns on innovation. Marketing and Branding Marketing and branding strategies create awareness, differentiate ventures, and attract customers. Entrepreneurs must master segmentation, targeting, positioning (STP), and leverage both traditional and digital channels (Kotler et al., 2017). For example, Gymshark, a UK-based fitness apparel brand, used influencer marketing on social media to grow into a global brand. Strong branding not only helps in customer acquisition but also builds long-term loyalty and trust. Sales and Customer Acquisition Sales are the lifeblood of any business. Entrepreneurs must build effective sales strategies, pricing models, and customer relationship management (CRM) systems (Anderson & Narus, 2006). Customer retention is often more cost-effective than acquisition, and strategies such as loyalty programmes and personalised services are vital (Ma et al., 2013). Amazon’s success is partly attributed to its customer-centric focus and seamless purchasing experience. Product Development and Innovation Entrepreneurship thrives on continuous innovation. Product development involves adapting and refining offerings in response to customer needs and technological shifts (Tidd & Bessant, 2018). Innovation can be incremental (small improvements) or disruptive (radical shifts that redefine industries). For example, Apple’s iterative innovation in smartphones has sustained its competitive advantage, while disruptive models like Netflix transformed the entertainment industry. Entrepreneurial Networking and Ecosystems Entrepreneurs rarely succeed in isolation. Building networks with mentors, investors, and peers provides access to knowledge, resources, and markets (Aldrich & Zimmer, 1986). Entrepreneurial ecosystems—such as Silicon Valley—offer infrastructure, funding, and cultural support that foster innovation (Baier-Fuentes et al., 2019). Similarly, accelerators and incubators have emerged worldwide to support early-stage ventures with mentorship and resources. Scaling and Growth Strategies Once established, ventures often aim to scale. Scaling involves expanding operations, entering new markets, and leveraging economies of scale while ensuring customer satisfaction (Churchill & Lewis, 1983). For example, Spotify scaled globally by leveraging digital platforms and partnerships while customising offerings for local markets. Growth strategies may include franchising, joint ventures, or mergers and acquisitions. However, scaling requires careful planning to avoid overexpansion and financial instability (Blundel et al., 2017). Risk Management and Resilience Entrepreneurship is inherently risky. Risks may include financial losses, market volatility, operational breakdowns, and regulatory shifts (Meyer, 1990). Effective risk management involves diversification, insurance, contingency planning, and scenario analysis. Moreover, resilience—the ability to adapt and recover from setbacks—is a defining trait of … Read more

Change Management: Overview of Study Key Topics Within the Field

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Change management refers to the structured process of preparing, equipping, and supporting individuals and organisations to adopt new processes, technologies, and behaviours successfully (Cameron & Green, 2015). In an era marked by digital transformation, globalisation, and continuous disruption, effective change management is essential for ensuring organisational resilience and sustainability. The field encompasses models, leadership strategies, stakeholder engagement, communication, training, and cultural transformation. 1.0 Change Management Models A cornerstone of the discipline is the use of models that guide the change process. Lewin’s Three-Step Model (unfreeze–change–refreeze) provides a simple foundation for understanding change dynamics (Burnes, 2017). Kotter’s Eight-Step Model expands on this by stressing vision creation, coalition-building, and reinforcement (Kotter, 2012). The ADKAR model (Hiatt & Creasey, 2012) remains widely applied, particularly in individual change readiness. Contemporary scholarship stresses that no single model fits all contexts; instead, hybrid approaches are often required (Oguntoyinbo et al., 2025). For instance, robotic process automation in healthcare required a blend of Kotter’s urgency creation and ADKAR’s reinforcement mechanisms to address both technological and human concerns. 2.0 Stakeholder Analysis and Engagement Stakeholders influence change success significantly. Analysing their needs, expectations, and potential resistance allows managers to tailor strategies. Cameron and Green (2015) emphasise mapping stakeholders by power and interest. Recent studies highlight the importance of co-design and co-creation with stakeholders (Heijsters, 2025). In healthcare digitalisation, involving clinicians as co-designers improved adoption rates. Similarly, large-scale corporate transformations at firms like Unilever show that early and inclusive stakeholder engagement enhances legitimacy and commitment. 3.0 Change Readiness Assessment Readiness assessments identify whether employees, systems, and leadership structures can support change. Assessments often cover leadership alignment, cultural openness, and resource allocation (Cameron & Green, 2015). Al Shamsi (2025) found that evaluating employee readiness in Abu Dhabi Police during technological change highlighted training gaps and cultural barriers, enabling tailored interventions. Readiness diagnostics therefore act as early warning systems to prevent derailment. 4.0 Communication Strategies Communication is the lifeblood of change management. Hiatt and Creasey (2012) argue that clarity, consistency, and timeliness are vital. Effective communication includes not only top-down announcements but also two-way dialogue. Digital platforms now play a greater role in communication strategies, especially in remote and hybrid organisations. Research by Hundal, Rhodes and Laux (2025) stresses collaborative leadership communication as a critical enabler of digital transformation in healthcare. Celebrating small wins and milestones, as Kotter (2012) advises, also reinforces morale. 5.0 Change Leadership and Sponsorship Leadership commitment is consistently cited as the most critical success factor in change (Cameron & Green, 2015). Sponsors must set the vision, mobilise resources, and model behaviours. Gaur and Bisht (2025) argue that leadership effectiveness in technology adoption depends on strategic sponsorship and cultural alignment. Leaders like Satya Nadella (Microsoft) have shown how visionary leadership transforms organisational culture by linking digital innovation with employee empowerment. 6.0 Resistance Management Resistance to change is inevitable. It may arise from fear of job loss, uncertainty, or cultural inertia (Hiatt & Creasey, 2012). Contemporary research emphasises empathetic resistance management. Bello (2025) stresses that in oil and gas industries, overcoming resistance required culturally sensitive training and hybrid project management approaches. Strategies include open forums, early involvement, and demonstrating benefits through pilots. Resistance should not be viewed solely as an obstacle but as feedback for refining implementation (Suwenti et al., 2025). 7.0 Training and Development Equipping employees with skills and confidence is essential. Tailored training ensures capability development and reduces anxiety (Cameron & Green, 2015). Case studies highlight the role of digital literacy training during transformations. Gifa et al. (2025) describe how PT Telkom Indonesia bridged resistance by investing in upskilling. Similarly, Kumar and Jaiswal (2025) stress that sustainable corporate growth requires integrating green HRM training into change efforts. 8.0 Change Measurement and Evaluation Without measurement, change progress cannot be sustained. KPIs may include adoption rates, employee engagement, or productivity outcomes (Cameron & Green, 2015). Evaluation frameworks now incorporate both quantitative and qualitative metrics. Research by Cecannecchia (2025) on health initiatives underscores the importance of continuous evaluation and flexibility, adjusting strategies in real time. Organisations increasingly use digital dashboards to monitor adoption and feedback, ensuring accountability. 9.0 Organisational Culture Change Culture is both a barrier and enabler of change. Schein (2010) argues that deep cultural assumptions must shift for sustained transformation. Aligning values with behaviours requires time and consistent reinforcement. Recent studies link digital transformation success directly to cultural adaptation. Abedini and Esfahani (2025) show that inappropriate cultures in Iran’s insurance industry hindered digital initiatives until cultural change programmes addressed values and mindsets. Culture change is often the most challenging yet crucial aspect of transformation. 10.0 Sustaining Change Sustainability means embedding new practices into everyday routines. Kotter (2012) highlights the importance of anchoring change in culture. Reinforcement mechanisms include continuous learning, recognition, and leadership modelling. Fauzi and Kusuma (2025) emphasise long-term reinforcement strategies, especially in digital business contexts where rapid change is constant. Successful organisations institutionalise change through adaptive structures, continuous learning platforms, and recognition systems. Case Examples Healthcare: Digital transformation of healthcare enterprises highlights the role of collaborative leadership and communication in sustaining adoption (Hundal et al., 2025). Technology: Microsoft’s cultural renewal under Nadella illustrates the role of vision, stakeholder engagement, and cultural change in large-scale transformation. Telecommunications: PT Telkom Indonesia demonstrates how targeted training and HR strategies reduce resistance (Gifa et al., 2025). Public Sector: Al Shamsi (2025) shows readiness assessments and tailored engagement as crucial for police technology adoption. Change management is a complex but vital discipline that integrates models, leadership, communication, and cultural transformation to achieve sustainable outcomes. Modern evidence confirms that successful change requires inclusive stakeholder engagement, empathetic resistance management, continuous training, and robust evaluation systems. The challenges of digital disruption, sustainability goals, and cultural diversity mean that organisations must adopt flexible, hybrid approaches that blend classic frameworks with contemporary adaptive practices. By embedding change into organisational culture and sustaining momentum through reinforcement, leaders can ensure resilience and growth in turbulent environments. References Abedini, A. & Esfahani, A.M. (2025). Designing an implementation model of digital transformation strategy in Iran’s insurance industry. Strategic Management Studies … Read more

What’s the Difference Between Being Nice and Being Kind?

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In the realm of human interaction, “being nice” and “being kind” are terms often used interchangeably. At a glance, both imply politeness, goodwill, and positive regard for others. However, beneath the surface, these concepts reflect very different intentions, psychological processes, and social outcomes. While niceness often aligns with social conformity and conflict avoidance, kindness stems from empathy, moral courage, and a genuine concern for others. Understanding the distinction is important, not just for improving our personal relationships, but also for fostering more authentic, compassionate societies. This article examines the behavioural, emotional, and psychological differences between niceness and kindness, drawing on contemporary research in social psychology, neuroscience, and ethics. 1.0 The Psychology of Being Nice Being “nice” is generally understood as displaying socially acceptable and agreeable behaviour. Nice individuals may smile often, agree with others even when they internally disagree, offer polite conversation, and avoid topics or actions that may trigger discomfort (Adams, 2016). However, niceness is frequently tied to external motivations. These may include: A desire to be liked or accepted. A fear of confrontation or rejection. An attempt to uphold social norms or expectations. Nice behaviours are often performative rather than sincere. While they may temporarily ease social tension, they can lack depth, authenticity, or ethical conviction. According to Bruneau et al. (2015), niceness does not necessarily correlate with prosocial action or moral courage; in fact, it may mask indifference or emotional disengagement, especially when difficult conversations or actions are needed. 2.0 The Psychology of Being Kind Kindness, in contrast, is a virtue rooted in empathy, compassion, and altruism. Unlike niceness, which is externally focused, kindness arises from internal ethical values and a desire to alleviate suffering (Keltner et al., 2014). Kind people are often described as: Emotionally attuned to others’ needs. Generous with their time, attention, or resources. Courageous, especially when standing up for others. Unconcerned with recognition, acting without expecting rewards. Research by Seppala (2016) and Curry et al. (2018) shows that acts of kindness are associated with increased emotional well-being, not only for the recipient but also for the giver. These acts build trust and social bonds, even when they are small, such as helping someone carry groceries or listening empathetically to a friend in distress. 3.0 Motivation: Approval vs Altruism One of the most significant differences lies in motivation. Nice behaviour is often driven by social validation—a need to appear agreeable, to be liked, or to avoid conflict (Grant, 2020). This can lead to people-pleasing tendencies, where an individual says “yes” when they want to say “no”, leading to personal burnout or resentment. Kindness, by contrast, is proactive and intentional. It may involve setting boundaries, telling the truth, or taking risks to protect or support others. DeSteno et al. (2010) suggest that emotions such as gratitude and compassion, which underpin kind behaviour, activate brain regions related to moral reasoning and empathy, rather than simple social compliance. 4.0 Behavioural Differences Characteristic Being Nice Being Kind Motivation Social acceptance, avoidance of conflict Empathy, compassion, altruism Typical Actions Agreeing, complimenting, avoiding conflict Helping, comforting, supporting Authenticity May be insincere or surface-level Sincere, heartfelt, emotionally grounded Moral Courage Avoids discomfort Faces discomfort for the benefit of others Impact Maintains short-term harmony Builds long-term trust and connection While niceness focuses on external appearances, kindness focuses on genuine connection and care, often at the cost of temporary discomfort. 5.0 Societal Implications Niceness, while socially rewarding in the short term, can have limiting effects on deeper social progress. For instance, in organisations or communities, an overemphasis on being nice can discourage honest feedback, suppress dissent, and maintain harmful status quos (Grant, 2020). Kindness, on the other hand, encourages moral clarity and action. It promotes: Inclusive cultures where people feel heard and supported. Authentic leadership, where leaders take difficult but compassionate actions. Stronger communities, where trust and mutual aid are prioritised. Aknin et al. (2013) found that cultures promoting kindness (rather than just politeness) tend to show higher levels of psychological well-being and social trust. Acts of kindness create a ripple effect, encouraging others to pay it forward, thus fostering prosocial behaviour across communities. 6.0 Kindness and Mental Health Kindness is not only beneficial for society but also for mental health. Numerous studies, including those by Curry et al. (2018), show that engaging in kind behaviour: Reduces stress and anxiety. Increases feelings of purpose and fulfilment. Enhances self-esteem and connectedness. Being nice, by contrast, may lead to emotional exhaustion if it stems from inauthentic motives or suppresses true feelings. Constantly trying to be agreeable can result in people-pleasing, poor boundaries, and even depression. 7.0 Cultivating Kindness Over Niceness To shift from niceness to kindness, individuals can practise: Mindful listening: genuinely engaging with others’ experiences. Authentic communication: being honest while remaining respectful. Empathic action: asking, “What would truly help this person?” rather than, “How can I appear helpful?” Courageous compassion: speaking up for others, even when it’s uncomfortable. Unlike niceness, kindness requires emotional intelligence, ethical reflection, and a willingness to act from integrity, not popularity. While both being nice and being kind may appear similar on the surface, they are fundamentally different in origin, purpose, and impact. Niceness is about being liked; kindness is about doing what is right. Niceness smooths social interactions, often at the expense of depth and honesty. Kindness, in contrast, leads to authentic relationships, stronger communities, and greater personal fulfilment. In a world increasingly dominated by superficial connections and curated appearances, choosing kindness over niceness may be a radical but necessary act of genuine humanity. References Adams, S. (2016) What’s the Difference Between Being Nice and Being Kind?, Forbes. Aknin, L. B., Barrington-Leigh, C. P., Dunn, E. W., Helliwell, J. F., Biswas-Diener, R., Kemeza, I., … & Norton, M. I. (2013) ‘Prosocial spending and well-being: Cross-cultural evidence for a psychological universal’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(4), pp. 635–652. Bruneau, E., Cikara, M. and Saxe, R. (2015) ‘Parochial empathy predicts reduced altruism and the endorsement of passive harm’, Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6(4), pp. 499–507. Curry, O. … Read more

Leadership: Overview of Key Study Topics Within the Field

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The study of leadership is a rich and multifaceted field that encompasses a wide range of theories, styles, and practical applications. As societies, organisations, and institutions evolve, so too does the understanding of what makes leadership effective in different contexts. Scholars have examined leadership through psychological, sociological, cultural, and organisational lenses, creating a body of knowledge that is both broad and dynamic. This article provides an expanded overview of key topics within the field of leadership, with reference to textbooks, journal articles, and reputable sources. 1.0 Leadership Theories and Models Leadership theories provide frameworks for understanding how individuals influence others. Among the most widely studied are transformational leadership, which inspires and motivates followers towards shared goals, and transactional leadership, which is based on rewards and punishments (Northouse, 2018). Servant leadership places emphasis on serving followers, promoting collaboration and empathy (Greenleaf, 1977). Participative leadership encourages involvement in decision-making, while situational leadership (Hersey & Blanchard, 1988) stresses adapting style according to the context. These theories highlight that leadership effectiveness depends on both the leader’s traits and the surrounding environment. 2.0 Leadership Styles Leadership styles refer to characteristic approaches leaders adopt when guiding teams. Autocratic leadership centralises decision-making, which can be efficient but may stifle creativity (Grint, 2000). Conversely, democratic leadership values collaboration and input, often improving morale and innovation. Laissez-faire leadership provides autonomy to followers but risks lack of direction, while charismatic leadership relies on the leader’s personal magnetism and vision. Research suggests that no single style is universally effective; the most successful leaders adopt a flexible approach depending on circumstances. 3.0 Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence (EI) has become a central theme in leadership research. Goleman (1995) emphasised that EI comprises self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills, all of which enable leaders to build trust and handle interpersonal dynamics effectively. Leaders with high EI tend to inspire loyalty and manage conflicts more productively. For example, Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2008) argue that EI helps leaders navigate uncertainty and stress, which is critical in volatile environments. 4.0 Ethical Leadership and Corporate Social Responsibility Modern organisations expect leaders not only to be effective but also ethical. Ethical leadership involves fairness, integrity, and role-modelling appropriate behaviour (Brown & Treviño, 2006). It is closely tied to corporate social responsibility (CSR), where leaders align organisational goals with societal good. Carroll’s (1991) CSR pyramid emphasises economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic responsibilities. Ethical leaders foster trust and enhance organisational reputation, ultimately contributing to long-term success. 5.0 Cultural and Global Leadership In an era of globalisation, cultural and global leadership has gained importance. The GLOBE study (House et al., 2004) found that leadership preferences vary across cultures, highlighting the need for cross-cultural awareness. For example, collectivist cultures may value consensus, while individualist cultures favour assertiveness. Leaders must also navigate diversity and inclusion, ensuring equitable practices within multicultural teams. Global leaders require adaptability, intercultural communication skills, and sensitivity to local norms. 6.0 Leadership Development Developing effective leaders is a strategic priority for organisations. Leadership development involves structured programmes such as mentoring, coaching, training, and experiential learning (Avolio & Hannah, 2008). Day et al. (2014) stress that leadership development is not limited to executives but extends across organisational levels. Cultivating leadership potential ensures continuity, resilience, and long-term organisational growth. 7.0 Organisational Leadership Organisational leadership focuses on shaping culture, managing change, and driving performance. Yukl (2013) emphasises that leaders influence not only individuals but also systems, processes, and values within organisations. Strong organisational leadership is critical during change management, where resistance must be overcome and vision effectively communicated. Leaders act as cultural architects, embedding values that align with organisational strategy. 8.0 Women in Leadership The role of women in leadership remains an area of significant study. Despite progress, gender disparities persist in senior positions. Eagly and Carli (2007) introduced the labyrinth metaphor, describing the complex barriers women face in reaching leadership roles, including stereotypes and structural inequalities. Research shows that diverse leadership teams foster innovation and improved decision-making (Catalyst, 2020). Supporting women in leadership requires mentorship, inclusive policies, and challenging gender biases. 9.0 Leadership in Different Contexts Leadership manifests differently across contexts. Educational leadership focuses on improving teaching and learning outcomes (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2005). Military leadership emphasises discipline, hierarchy, and resilience. Political leadership involves navigating public opinion, policy, and governance. In the non-profit sector, leaders often rely on intrinsic motivation and volunteer engagement (Bolden, 2011). Each context demands unique skills while sharing universal principles such as vision and influence. 10.0 Innovation and Leadership Innovation is vital in today’s competitive landscape, and leaders play a key role in fostering it. Amabile and Khaire (2008) argue that leaders must create psychological safety, encourage experimentation, and tolerate failure. Transformational leadership is particularly linked to creativity, as it inspires followers to think beyond conventional boundaries. Leaders who champion innovation can drive organisational adaptation and long-term sustainability. 11.0 Crisis Leadership The increasing frequency of crises—ranging from economic downturns to pandemics—has made crisis leadership essential. Boin et al. (2013) highlight that effective crisis leaders demonstrate decisiveness, clear communication, and resilience under pressure. They must manage uncertainty while maintaining trust and morale. Transparent communication and empathy are critical in ensuring collective recovery and organisational stability during crises. 12.0 Team Leadership Team leadership involves guiding groups towards collective goals. Hackman and Wageman (2005) proposed that effective team leaders focus on team development stages, conflict resolution, and collaboration. Leaders foster cohesion by clarifying roles, encouraging open communication, and addressing conflicts constructively. In high-performance teams, leadership often shifts dynamically among members, reinforcing the concept of distributed leadership (Bolden, 2011). The study of leadership is an evolving discipline, constantly shaped by research, societal changes, and technological advancements. From classical theories to contemporary focuses on emotional intelligence, ethics, diversity, and globalisation, leadership scholarship continues to refine understanding of how leaders influence individuals, teams, and organisations. Effective leadership is not static but context-dependent, requiring adaptability, integrity, and vision. As organisations navigate an increasingly complex world, leadership remains one of the most critical determinants of success. References Amabile, T. M. & Khaire, M. (2008) … Read more

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