Mohammad T Islam (BSc, MBA, MEd)

Computer Science: Overview of Key Topics Within the Field

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Computer Science is a dynamic and expansive field that encompasses a wide array of topics ranging from theoretical foundations to practical applications. This article provides an overview of some of the key topics within Computer Science, highlighting their significance and interconnections. 1.0 Algorithms and Data Structures Algorithms and data structures form the backbone of computer science, providing methods and tools for solving problems efficiently. An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure for calculations, data processing, and automated reasoning tasks. Data structures, on the other hand, are ways to organise and store data to facilitate efficient access and modification. Knuth’s seminal work, “The Art of Computer Programming,” offers an in-depth exploration of algorithms and data structures, illustrating their fundamental importance in computer science (Knuth, 1997). 2.0 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) are pivotal in modern computer science, driving advancements in various domains such as healthcare, finance, and autonomous systems. AI encompasses the development of systems that can perform tasks typically requiring human intelligence, including visual perception, speech recognition, and decision-making. ML, a subset of AI, focuses on the development of algorithms that allow computers to learn from and make predictions based on data. Russell and Norvig’s “Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach” is a comprehensive resource that delves into the principles and applications of AI and ML (Russell & Norvig, 2020). 3.0 Computer Networks and the Internet Computer networks, including the Internet, are essential for communication and information exchange in today’s connected world. This topic covers the design, implementation, and management of networks that connect computers and other devices. Key concepts include network protocols, architecture, security, and performance. Kurose and Ross’s “Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach” provides an extensive overview of how networks operate, from the physical layer to application protocols (Kurose & Ross, 2017). 4.0 Cybersecurity Cybersecurity is the practice of protecting systems, networks, and programs from digital attacks. These attacks are often aimed at accessing, changing, or destroying sensitive information, extorting money from users, or interrupting normal business processes. The field of cybersecurity encompasses various disciplines, including cryptography, network security, and information assurance. Schneier’s “Applied Cryptography” is a foundational text that explores the principles and techniques used to secure data and communication (Schneier, 1996). 5.0 Software Engineering Software engineering involves the application of engineering principles to the development of software. This includes the systematic approach to the design, development, testing, and maintenance of software systems. The goal is to produce high-quality software that is reliable, efficient, and maintainable. Sommerville’s “Software Engineering” is a key reference that outlines best practices and methodologies in the field, from requirements engineering to project management (Sommerville, 2015). 6.0 Human-Computer Interaction Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) studies the design and use of computer technology, focusing particularly on the interfaces between people (users) and computers. Researchers in HCI observe the ways in which humans interact with computers and design technologies that let humans interact with computers in novel ways. The book “Human-Computer Interaction” by Dix et al. provides an in-depth look at the theories, methodologies, and applications of HCI (Dix et al., 2004). 7.0 Database Systems Databases are organised collections of data that are stored and accessed electronically. Database systems provide efficient, reliable, convenient, and safe multi-user storage of and access to massive amounts of persistent data. Silberschatz, Korth, and Sudarshan’s “Database System Concepts” is a comprehensive guide to the fundamental concepts underlying database management systems (Silberschatz et al., 2011). Computer Science is a multifaceted discipline that integrates various fields and concepts, each contributing to the overall advancement of technology and society. Understanding these key topics provides a solid foundation for further exploration and specialisation in the diverse and ever-evolving field of computer science. References Dix, A., Finlay, J., Abowd, G. D., & Beale, R. (2004) Human-Computer Interaction. 3rd ed. Pearson. Knuth, D. E. (1997) The Art of Computer Programming. Vol. 1: Fundamental Algorithms. 3rd ed. Addison-Wesley. Kurose, J. F., & Ross, K. W. (2017) Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach. 7th ed. Pearson. Russell, S. J., & Norvig, P. (2020) Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach. 4th ed. Pearson. Schneier, B. (1996) Applied Cryptography: Protocols, Algorithms, and Source Code in C. 2nd ed. Wiley. Silberschatz, A., Korth, H. F., & Sudarshan, S. (2011) Database System Concepts. 6th ed. McGraw-Hill. Sommerville, I. (2015) Software Engineering. 10th ed. Pearson.

Setting Objectives: Defining SMART Goals for Organisational Success

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Setting objectives is a fundamental component of strategic management. Objectives act as benchmarks for performance and provide a clear direction for organisational efforts. Without clearly defined goals, organisations risk losing focus, misallocating resources, and underperforming in key areas. The SMART framework—Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound—is widely adopted for defining effective goals that guide an organisation towards success (Wheelen & Hunger, 2020). This article explores the importance of SMART objectives and how they enhance organisational alignment and performance, offering a strategic tool for achieving both short-term and long-term goals. The Importance of Setting Objectives Objectives are essential for any organisation aiming to achieve its mission and vision. They translate broad strategic goals into specific targets that can be measured and managed. Without objectives, it becomes challenging for an organisation to measure progress or assess performance effectively. By setting clear objectives, organisations ensure that all members understand and work towards common goals, facilitating coordinated efforts across various departments and functions (Drucker, 1954). Moreover, well-defined objectives provide a basis for performance evaluation, helping managers to assess progress and make necessary adjustments to strategies and operations. Peter Drucker (1954), a pioneering thinker in management theory, emphasised that objectives offer clarity and enable focus. Without them, an organisation may find itself without a clear direction, unsure of whether its efforts are aligned with its broader vision. Objectives also play a key role in motivating employees, offering them clear targets and a sense of purpose, which increases their commitment to the organisation’s success. SMART Objectives – Specific Objectives need to be specific to provide a clear focus and direction. A specific objective answers the questions: What needs to be accomplished? Who is responsible for it? What steps need to be taken? For example, rather than setting a vague goal like “increase sales,” a specific objective would be “increase sales of product X by 20% in the North American market by the end of the fiscal year.” This clarity helps employees understand exactly what is expected of them and how their efforts contribute to the broader organisational goals (Locke & Latham, 2002). Specific objectives are easier to communicate and less likely to be misunderstood, ensuring that all stakeholders are aligned in their understanding of what needs to be achieved. Clear, specific objectives also reduce ambiguity and prevent teams from wasting time and resources on tasks that do not contribute to organisational success. When an objective is too broad or unclear, employees may struggle to prioritise tasks or make informed decisions about where to focus their efforts. Specific objectives guide decision-making and provide a foundation for strategic planning and day-to-day operations. SMART Objectives – Measurable Measurable objectives allow organisations to track progress and determine when a goal has been achieved. Metrics and key performance indicators (KPIs) are used to quantify objectives. For instance, if an objective is to “improve customer satisfaction,” a measurable target would be “increase customer satisfaction scores from 85% to 90% within six months.” Measurable objectives provide a concrete way to assess performance, making it easier to identify areas for improvement and celebrate successes (Kaplan & Norton, 1996). By quantifying objectives, organisations can avoid subjective evaluations of performance and instead rely on objective data. This is crucial for ensuring accountability within teams and departments. If progress can be measured, it is easier to make evidence-based decisions, allocate resources more efficiently, and adjust strategies as needed. For example, if sales targets are not being met, managers can investigate factors contributing to underperformance, such as market conditions or internal inefficiencies, and take corrective action. SMART Objectives – Achievable Achievability is crucial to maintaining motivation and commitment. Objectives should be challenging yet realistic, considering the organisation’s resources and constraints. Setting unattainable goals can lead to frustration and demotivation, while setting easily achievable goals may not drive sufficient effort and innovation. An achievable objective strikes a balance, encouraging employees to stretch their capabilities while ensuring the goal is within reach (Locke & Latham, 2006). When objectives are too ambitious, they can have a detrimental effect on organisational morale. Employees who feel that goals are unattainable may lose motivation and reduce their effort, which can undermine overall performance. On the other hand, goals that are too easy to achieve do not inspire innovation or creativity, as employees are not challenged to think critically or develop new approaches. Therefore, it is important for leaders to set objectives that push the organisation forward without overextending its resources or capabilities. SMART Objectives – Relevant Relevant objectives align with the organisation’s mission, vision, and strategic priorities. They should contribute meaningfully to the long-term success of the organisation. For example, a technology company focused on innovation might set an objective to “develop and launch three new software products in the next two years.” This objective is relevant because it supports the company’s strategic focus on innovation and market leadership (Grant, 2016). Ensuring relevance helps maintain organisational focus and prevents resource wastage on inconsequential activities. Relevance is about ensuring that objectives align with broader organisational goals. An objective that does not contribute to the company’s mission is likely to divert resources away from more critical activities. Relevant objectives ensure that every part of the organisation is working towards a common purpose, which increases the overall coherence of strategy implementation. By setting relevant objectives, organisations ensure that their efforts are directed towards achieving meaningful and impactful outcomes. SMART Objectives – Time-bound Time-bound objectives include a clear deadline, creating a sense of urgency and prompting timely action. A time-bound objective specifies when the goal should be achieved, such as “reduce operational costs by 10% within the next 12 months.” Deadlines help in prioritising tasks and enable periodic reviews to assess progress and make adjustments if necessary. Time constraints also prevent goals from being perpetually deferred, ensuring steady progress towards strategic objectives (Kotter, 1996). Without a defined timeframe, objectives can easily become prolonged, leading to delays in project completion or overall stagnation in progress. Time-bound objectives provide a structure for the organisation’s efforts, enabling managers to break … Read more

Six Habits of Happy People: An Exploration of Positive Psychology Principles

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Happiness has long been a subject of interest within the field of psychology. Numerous studies have attempted to decode the habits and behaviours that contribute to a person’s overall sense of well-being and contentment. This article examines into six habits often observed among happy people: not showing off, talking less, learning daily, helping the less fortunate, laughing more, and ignoring nonsense. Each of these habits aligns with various principles of positive psychology, a branch of psychology that focuses on strengths, virtues, and factors that contribute to a fulfilling life. 1.0 Don’t Show Off The notion of modesty and humility as a path to happiness is well-documented. Showing off, or ostentatious behaviour, often stems from a desire for external validation and can lead to feelings of insecurity and comparison. Lyubomirsky (2008) suggests that individuals who do not seek to show off are more likely to derive their self-worth from intrinsic sources, such as personal achievements and relationships, rather than external accolades. This intrinsic orientation promotes a stable sense of self and overall happiness. 2.0 Talk Less Talking less is associated with mindfulness and the practice of active listening. Research by Brown and Ryan (2003) on mindfulness indicates that being present and attentive in conversations can enhance interpersonal relationships and increase emotional intelligence. Talking less allows individuals to listen more, fostering deeper connections and understanding with others, which are crucial components of happiness. 3.0 Learn Daily Continuous learning is a critical component of self-improvement and personal growth. According to Dweck (2006), adopting a growth mindset, where one views abilities and intelligence as improvable, leads to greater motivation and achievement. Lifelong learning keeps the mind active, fosters creativity, and provides a sense of accomplishment, all of which contribute to happiness. Moreover, Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) concept of “flow” suggests that engaging in challenging activities that require skill and concentration can lead to deep enjoyment and fulfilment. 4.0 Help Less Fortunate Acts of kindness and helping others have been shown to significantly boost happiness. Seligman (2011) discusses the concept of “positive psychology” and emphasises that altruism and prosocial behaviour can enhance one’s sense of purpose and satisfaction. Engaging in activities that help the less fortunate not only benefits the recipients but also provides the giver with a sense of connection and contribution to the greater good, which are essential elements of a happy life. 5.0 Laugh More Laughter is often cited as a natural remedy for stress and a booster of overall well-being. Fredrickson’s (2004) broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions suggests that laughter and joy expand our awareness and encourage novel, varied, and exploratory thoughts and actions. Regular laughter can improve mood, reduce anxiety, and foster social bonds, all of which are vital for happiness. 6.0 Ignore Nonsense Ignoring nonsense refers to the ability to filter out trivial or negative distractions that do not contribute to one’s well-being. This habit aligns with the concept of emotional regulation, which Gross (2002) defines as the ability to influence which emotions we have, when we have them, and how we experience and express these emotions. By focusing on what truly matters and dismissing inconsequential distractions, individuals can maintain a positive outlook and reduce stress, leading to greater happiness. The six habits of happy people highlighted in this article—modesty, mindful communication, continuous learning, altruism, laughter, and emotional regulation—reflect key principles of positive psychology. By integrating these habits into daily life, individuals can enhance their well-being and foster a more fulfilling existence. Future research could explore the interconnections between these habits and how they collectively contribute to long-term happiness. References Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003) “The Benefits of Being Present: Mindfulness and Its Role in Psychological Well-Being”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 84(4), pp. 822-848. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990) Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. New York: Harper & Row. Dweck, C. S. (2006) Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. New York: Random House. Fredrickson, B. L. (2004) “The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions”. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 359(1449), pp. 1367-1377. Gross, J. J. (2002) “Emotion Regulation: Affective, Cognitive, and Social Consequences”. Psychophysiology. 39(3), pp. 281-291. Lyubomirsky, S. (2008) The How of Happiness: A Scientific Approach to Getting the Life You Want. New York: Penguin Press. Seligman, M. E. P. (2011) Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well-being. New York: Free Press.

Five Key Practices of High-Performing Teams: Insights and Strategies

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High-performing teams stand out due to their exceptional collaboration, communication, and shared purpose. They demonstrate distinct behaviours that not only enhance productivity but also foster trust, creativity, and engagement. According to Ron Friedman (2021) in the Harvard Business Review, these teams operate differently because they understand that success is built on strong relationships, authentic communication, and purposeful interactions. By focusing on a few deliberate practices, high-performing teams achieve better results, enjoy higher satisfaction, and develop resilience in the face of challenges. This article explores five essential behaviours that characterise high-performing teams — preference for phone calls over digital communication, strategic meeting management, investment in personal relationships, frequent appreciation and recognition, and authenticity and emotional expression — supported by contemporary research, real-world examples, and leadership insights. 1.0 Preference for Phone Calls Over Digital Communication One of the most striking habits of high-performing teams is their preference for phone calls over text-based communication. Research by Friedman (2021) indicates that high-performing teams make up to 66% more phone calls than average teams. This behaviour may seem counterintuitive in a digital age dominated by instant messaging and email, but it reflects an understanding of the limitations of written communication. Phone conversations offer immediacy, warmth, and emotional connection. Unlike written communication, which can be misinterpreted due to lack of tone or context, verbal interactions allow participants to clarify misunderstandings quickly and express empathy through voice cues. Mehrabian’s (1971) communication model** highlights that only 7% of meaning in communication comes from words, while 38% stems from tone and 55% from body language. Although phone calls lack body language, tone still conveys emotional nuances that strengthen relationships and understanding. In practical terms, many remote and hybrid teams have rediscovered the importance of voice communication. For instance, during the COVID-19 pandemic, teams that relied on phone or video calls reported higher psychological safety and connection than those that communicated primarily via text (Leadership Today, 2024). This underscores the value of verbal interactions in maintaining human connection, especially when face-to-face meetings are limited. 2.0 Strategic Meeting Management Another hallmark of high-performing teams is their approach to meeting management. They recognise that not all meetings are productive, and excessive or poorly structured meetings can drain energy and waste time. Instead of reducing the number of meetings, high-performing teams focus on improving meeting quality. According to Leadership Today (2024), such teams conduct 39% more prework than average teams, ensuring that participants arrive prepared. They begin meetings with check-ins — short updates or personal reflections that promote connection and engagement. This practice not only humanises interactions but also sets a collaborative tone. Meetings are structured around clear agendas and outcomes, ensuring alignment between participants and preventing scope creep. This approach reflects Drucker’s (2007) principle of time effectiveness: “There is nothing so useless as doing efficiently what should not be done at all.” By ensuring that meetings are purposeful, inclusive, and results-driven, teams make better decisions and foster shared ownership of outcomes. For example, in companies like Atlassian and Microsoft, meeting effectiveness frameworks are used to promote accountability — participants leave each meeting with assigned actions, timelines, and metrics. This disciplined yet human-centred approach contributes to both efficiency and engagement, ensuring that team time is spent meaningfully. 3.0 Investing in Personal Relationships High-performing teams understand that strong relationships underpin strong performance. They invest in personal connections by engaging in conversations beyond work tasks, discussing interests, families, and life experiences. According to Widdowson and Barbour (2021), these interactions foster trust, empathy, and belonging — essential components of a supportive team culture. This behaviour aligns with Maslow’s (1943) Hierarchy of Needs, which suggests that a sense of belonging is foundational to motivation and performance. When individuals feel valued as people, not just employees, they are more likely to contribute enthusiastically and collaborate effectively. For instance, Google’s Project Aristotle, a landmark study on team performance, found that psychological safety and interpersonal trust were the strongest predictors of team success. Teams that built relationships outside formal work settings — through social events, informal chats, and mutual support — demonstrated higher innovation and satisfaction levels. Simple actions like team lunches, informal coffee chats, or celebrating birthdays help humanise work relationships. These activities transform groups of individuals into cohesive communities that work together toward shared goals. Ultimately, the emotional bonds formed through genuine connection enhance both resilience and collaboration under pressure. 4.0 Frequent Appreciation and Recognition Appreciation and recognition are powerful motivators, and high-performing teams excel at expressing them frequently and sincerely. Research by Widdowson and Barbour (2021) shows that appreciation is not limited to formal rewards but includes informal expressions of gratitude and encouragement. When team members feel seen and valued, they are more engaged, loyal, and productive. Recognition reinforces positive behaviours, boosting morale and strengthening the team’s sense of purpose. According to Herzberg’s (1968) Two-Factor Theory, recognition is one of the most significant motivators in the workplace, enhancing job satisfaction and reducing turnover. Modern organisations such as Salesforce and Deloitte have institutionalised peer recognition systems, enabling employees to acknowledge one another’s contributions in real time. These gestures create a ripple effect of goodwill and support, sustaining a culture of respect and motivation. Moreover, appreciation fosters reciprocity and cooperation. When individuals receive recognition, they are more inclined to extend support and encouragement to others. In essence, a culture of appreciation cultivates psychological safety, making teams more cohesive and engaged. 5.0 Authenticity and Emotional Expression Authenticity is at the heart of trust and effective teamwork. High-performing teams encourage members to express genuine emotions, including frustration or disappointment, without fear of judgement. According to Leadership Today (2022), authenticity fosters emotional openness, allowing teams to address challenges directly and constructively. When individuals feel safe to be themselves, creativity and innovation thrive. Research by Edmondson (2019) on psychological safety demonstrates that teams where members can speak openly about mistakes or concerns are more adaptive and resilient. Suppressing emotions, on the other hand, leads to disengagement and burnout. A case in point is the leadership approach of Satya Nadella, CEO of Microsoft, … Read more

Understanding Austerity: Definition, History, Mechanics, Impact, and Example Case Study

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Austerity, a term frequently invoked in economic and political discourse, refers to stringent economic policies aimed at reducing government budget deficits through spending cuts, tax increases, or a combination of both. This policy approach, often adopted during periods of economic distress, has been a subject of significant debate among economists, policymakers, and the public. Historical Context and Rationale The concept of austerity is not new. It gained prominence during the Great Depression of the 1930s and was later employed extensively during the debt crises of the 1980s in Latin America and the 1990s in Asia. More recently, it has been a pivotal strategy in the Eurozone crisis following the 2008 global financial meltdown. The rationale behind austerity is rooted in the belief that reducing fiscal deficits and public debt can restore economic stability and foster long-term growth. This perspective is grounded in classical economic theories that advocate for limited government intervention and emphasize the importance of maintaining fiscal discipline (Blanchard et al., 2013). The Mechanics of Austerity Austerity measures typically involve reducing public expenditure on social services, education, and healthcare, alongside increasing taxes. These policies aim to reduce government borrowing and improve fiscal balance. For instance, in Greece, severe austerity measures were implemented as a condition for receiving bailout funds from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the European Union (EU). These measures included substantial cuts to pensions, salaries, and public sector jobs, as well as tax hikes (Kentikelenis et al., 2014). Economic and Social Impacts The impacts of austerity are multifaceted and often contentious. Proponents argue that austerity is necessary to curb excessive government debt and avoid the economic instability that can arise from unchecked fiscal deficits. They contend that austerity can lead to increased investor confidence, lower interest rates, and eventually, economic recovery (Alesina & Ardagna, 2010). However, critics highlight the adverse effects of austerity, particularly on vulnerable populations. Austerity measures can lead to higher unemployment, reduced social services, and increased poverty. In the UK, for example, austerity policies implemented in the aftermath of the 2008 financial crisis have been linked to a rise in food bank usage and child poverty rates (Loopstra et al., 2015). Furthermore, austerity can exacerbate economic downturns by reducing aggregate demand, leading to a vicious cycle of economic contraction and fiscal tightening (Blyth, 2013). Austerity in the UK: A Case Study The UK provides a pertinent example of the implementation and consequences of austerity. Following the 2010 general election, the Conservative-led government introduced a series of austerity measures aimed at reducing the fiscal deficit. These included significant cuts to public spending, particularly in welfare, education, and local government funding. According to Taylor-Gooby (2012), these policies were justified on the grounds of reducing the national debt and restoring economic stability. The social repercussions of these policies have been profound. Research by Alston (2018) indicates that austerity has contributed to increased levels of poverty and inequality in the UK. Public services have been strained, with reductions in funding for local councils leading to cuts in social care and other essential services. Moreover, the reduction in welfare benefits has disproportionately affected low-income households, exacerbating economic inequality. Austerity remains a contentious and polarising policy approach. While its proponents argue for the necessity of fiscal discipline and the long-term benefits of reduced debt, critics point to the immediate and often severe social costs. The experiences of countries like Greece and the UK illustrate the complex and often painful trade-offs involved in implementing austerity measures. As policymakers navigate future economic challenges, the debate over austerity’s merits and drawbacks will undoubtedly continue. References Alesina, A., & Ardagna, S. (2010) “Large Changes in Fiscal Policy: Taxes Versus Spending”. In Tax Policy and the Economy. Volume 24, pp. 35-68. University of Chicago Press. Alston, P. (2018) “Statement on Visit to the United Kingdom, By Professor Philip Alston, United Nations Special Rapporteur on Extreme Poverty and Human Rights”. United Nations. [Online]. Available at: https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements/2018/11/statement-visit-united-kingdom-professor-philip-alston-united-nations-special. [Accessed on 17 June 2024]. Blanchard, O., Dell’Ariccia, G., & Mauro, P. (2013) “Rethinking Macro Policy II: Getting Granular. IMF Staff Discussion Note”. International Monetary Fund. [Online]. Available at: https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/sdn/2013/sdn1303.pdf. [Accessed on 17 June 2024]. Blyth, M. (2013) Austerity: The History of a Dangerous Idea. Oxford University Press. Kentikelenis, A., Karanikolos, M., Papanicolas, I., Basu, S., McKee, M., & Stuckler, D. (2014) “Health Effects of Financial Crisis: Omens of a Greek Tragedy”. The Lancet. 383(9918), pp. 748-753. Loopstra, R., Reeves, A., Taylor-Robinson, D., Barr, B., McKee, M., & Stuckler, D. (2015) Austerity, Sanctions, and the Rise of Food Banks in the UK. BMJ. 350, h1775. Taylor-Gooby, P. (2012) “Root and Branch Restructuring to Achieve Major Cuts: The Social Policy Programme of the 2010 UK Coalition Government”. Social Policy & Administration. 46(1), pp.61-82.

Unforgettable Leadership: The Traits that Make Leaders Memorable

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Leadership is more than a title; it represents a commitment to guide, inspire, and uplift others toward shared objectives. The impact of memorable leadership extends beyond organisational performance—it shapes a culture of respect, trust, and resilience. Leaders who leave a lasting impression possess a distinctive combination of empathy, empowerment, and integrity, influencing not only company outcomes but also the personal growth of their teams. This article explores the defining traits that make leaders unforgettable, supported by academic research, key texts, and real-world examples. 1.0 Prioritising Well-being Alongside Organisational Goals Unforgettable leaders understand that employee well-being is fundamental to organisational success. As Goleman (1995) explains in Emotional Intelligence, leaders who show empathy and concern for their teams foster trust and loyalty. When employees feel genuinely supported, their motivation and productivity rise. A culture that balances performance with well-being ensures sustained commitment. For instance, during the pandemic, organisations led by empathetic managers—such as Microsoft under Satya Nadella—reported stronger morale and engagement (Gallup, 2024). 2.0 Standing by Employees in Challenging Times Resilience and reliability in adversity are hallmarks of great leadership. Ovans (2015) notes that leaders who provide stability and reassurance during crises help reduce employee anxiety and preserve morale. Whether through flexible work options, mental health support, or consistent communication, such leaders demonstrate emotional steadiness. This not only maintains productivity but also strengthens collective trust, creating teams that remain cohesive under pressure. 3.0 Empowering Through Trust and Autonomy Effective leaders cultivate trust and autonomy, empowering employees to take ownership of their work. As Covey (2006) argues in The Speed of Trust, trust accelerates collaboration and innovation by creating an environment of psychological safety. Employees who are trusted to make decisions display higher initiative and accountability. For example, Google’s “20% time” policy—allowing employees to pursue projects of their choosing—has yielded innovations like Gmail and AdSense, illustrating how autonomy fosters creativity and engagement. 4.0 Creating Safe and Growth-Oriented Workplaces Safety—both physical and psychological—is a prerequisite for growth and innovation. Edmondson (2018), in The Fearless Organization, defines psychological safety as a climate where employees feel secure in taking risks and voicing ideas without fear of punishment. When leaders cultivate such environments, they unleash creativity and learning. A practical example is Pixar’s “Braintrust” meetings, where candid feedback is encouraged, illustrating how openness leads to superior results. 5.0 Fostering Collaboration and Mutual Respect True leadership thrives on collaboration and respect. Lencioni (2002) identifies trust and mutual respect as the foundations of effective teams. Leaders who dismantle hierarchies and encourage open dialogue foster inclusivity and innovation. Collaborative leaders, such as New Zealand’s former Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern, exemplify how inclusive communication and humility can enhance both morale and collective success. 6.0 Encouraging Continuous Learning and Growth Unforgettable leaders promote continuous learning and a growth mindset. Dweck (2006) emphasises that individuals with a growth mindset view challenges as opportunities rather than threats. Leaders who invest in training and mentorship cultivate adaptable, forward-thinking teams. Organisations like IBM and Unilever, which emphasise lifelong learning, demonstrate how developing human potential strengthens long-term competitiveness. 7.0 Showing Understanding and Forgiveness Compassionate leadership involves understanding and forgiveness. As Cameron (2008) notes in Positive Leadership, empathy and forgiveness create psychological safety, encouraging innovation through trial and error. Leaders who respond constructively to mistakes foster trust and resilience. For instance, companies like Google encourage post-project “blameless retrospectives,” treating errors as shared learning experiences rather than personal failures. 8.0 Valuing Work and Individual Contributions Recognition and appreciation are essential elements of memorable leadership. According to Gallup (2024), employee engagement and satisfaction are directly tied to the frequency and sincerity of recognition. When leaders celebrate small wins and appreciate individual effort, employees feel valued and empowered. For example, Starbucks’ recognition culture, where even frontline employees are publicly acknowledged for outstanding service, promotes a sense of belonging and pride. 9.0 Creating Opportunities for Advancement Leaders who create pathways for advancement demonstrate a long-term commitment to their teams’ success. The Society for Human Resource Management (2016) found that career development opportunities significantly enhance retention and job satisfaction. By promoting from within and offering mentorship, leaders foster loyalty and motivation. Organisations like Deloitte and PwC exemplify this by offering structured leadership development programmes, encouraging employees to envision growth within the company. 10.0 Offering Support During Tough Times Supportive leadership during adversity reflects authentic empathy. Whether providing access to mental health resources or accommodating flexible arrangements, such leaders show that they value their employees as individuals. These actions strengthen emotional bonds and organisational loyalty. As noted by Ovans (2015), emotionally intelligent leaders use compassion as a strategic tool to sustain performance under stress. 11.0 Celebrating Wins and Rewarding Efforts Recognition is a powerful motivator. Research from the American Psychological Association (2017) shows that recognition not only enhances job satisfaction but also improves performance and retention. Celebrating team milestones and individual achievements nurtures a positive workplace culture. Unforgettable leaders make celebration a consistent part of their leadership practice, reinforcing morale and collective pride. 12.0 Motivating Beyond Limits Extraordinary leaders inspire people to achieve beyond perceived limits. According to Maxwell (1998) in The 21 Irrefutable Laws of Leadership, such leaders combine vision, encouragement, and accountability to bring out the best in their teams. By setting ambitious goals while offering guidance and support, they cultivate purpose and confidence. Leaders like Nelson Mandela or Malala Yousafzai exemplify how inspirational leadership rooted in empathy can drive transformative social and organisational change. Unforgettable leaders possess a rare combination of emotional intelligence, authenticity, and empowerment. They balance organisational goals with human connection, ensuring that success is shared rather than imposed. Through empathy, trust, collaboration, and recognition, these leaders inspire others to grow beyond expectations. Their legacy is not merely measured by profits or productivity but by the lasting impact they leave on people’s hearts and minds. In every sphere—business, education, or public service—the leaders we remember are those who lead with purpose, humility, and humanity. References American Psychological Association (2017) Work and Well-being Survey. [Online]. Available at: https://www.apa.org/pubs/reports/work-well-being [Accessed 15 June 2024]. Cameron, K. S. (2008) Positive Leadership: Strategies … Read more

Organisational Culture: Key to Shaping the Organisation’s Identity and Effectiveness

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Organisational culture, a central concept in the study of organisational behaviour (OB), refers to the shared values, beliefs, norms, and assumptions that shape how employees think, feel, and behave within the workplace (Robbins & Judge, 2021). It forms the social glue that binds members together, influencing not only employee conduct and motivation but also the strategic identity and long-term effectiveness of the organisation. Foundations of Organisational Culture The prominence of organisational culture emerged in the late 20th century, particularly after scholars sought to understand why some firms outperformed others despite having access to similar resources. Schein (2010) proposed a three-level model of culture: Artefacts – visible, tangible elements such as office design, rituals, dress codes, and language. Espoused values – articulated strategies, goals, and philosophies. Basic underlying assumptions – unconscious beliefs and values deeply embedded within the organisation. This model highlights that culture goes beyond surface practices; it reflects deep-rooted assumptions that guide day-to-day behaviours, shaping how employees interpret organisational realities. Influence on Employee Behaviour and Attitudes Culture serves as a behavioural compass, signalling to employees what is acceptable and what is not. For example, a culture that values innovation and risk-taking will reward creative initiatives, whereas a culture that emphasises stability and control may discourage experimentation. Cameron and Quinn (2011) developed the Competing Values Framework (CVF), identifying four culture types: Clan culture (collaboration, trust, commitment) Adhocracy culture (innovation, risk-taking) Market culture (competition, achievement) Hierarchy culture (control, structure) Each type has a distinct influence on employee attitudes, motivation, and satisfaction. For instance, clan cultures often foster belonging and loyalty, leading to higher employee retention. Research supports the notion that positive organisational culture improves outcomes. A study by Shahid and Khalid (2024) found that cultures emphasising trust and support correlated strongly with higher employee motivation and job satisfaction. Conversely, toxic cultures marked by internal rivalry and poor communication often increase stress, absenteeism, and turnover. Organisational Identity and Culture Culture also defines an organisation’s identity, shaping how members perceive themselves and how external stakeholders perceive the company. According to Barney (1986), a strong culture that is valuable, rare, and inimitable can serve as a source of sustained competitive advantage. For instance, Google’s culture of innovation fosters creativity and attracts top talent, while Toyota’s culture of continuous improvement (Kaizen) has been essential to its manufacturing excellence. These cultural identities not only differentiate organisations in the market but also act as strategic resources that competitors find difficult to replicate. Pandey (2025) illustrates how cultural collisions in cross-cultural workplaces may threaten organisational identity if values clash. This highlights the importance of cultural alignment in multinational corporations, where blending diverse cultural identities into a cohesive whole is crucial for effectiveness. Culture and Organisational Effectiveness Organisational effectiveness is often mediated by culture. Otasowie, Aigbavboa, and Oke (2025) argue that addressing cultural gaps in organisations enhances employee efficiency and strategic performance. Similarly, Islam, Hossain, and Cabral (2025) found that leadership motivation styles were effective only when aligned with cultural values, reinforcing the idea that culture is a context within which performance is shaped. Strong cultures can enhance coordination, decision-making, and goal alignment, allowing employees to act cohesively without extensive managerial oversight. However, overly strong cultures may lead to groupthink, reducing adaptability in volatile environments (Kotter, 1996). Managing and Changing Organisational Culture While culture can be an asset, it can also become a liability when it resists necessary change. Deeply ingrained assumptions may prevent organisations from adapting to technological disruption or global competition. According to Kotter (1996), leaders play a pivotal role in managing cultural change by: Establishing a sense of urgency for change. Building a guiding coalition of cultural champions. Aligning new practices with core values. Reinforcing desired behaviours through communication and recognition. Transformational leaders, in particular, are effective at reshaping culture. Degbey and Ding (2025) argue that strengths-based leadership fosters motivation and job satisfaction by aligning employee capabilities with cultural values. Moreover, informal culture—manifested in social networks and peer norms—can either reinforce or undermine formal efforts at change (Schein, 2010). Leaders must therefore engage with both formal structures and informal networks when cultivating or reshaping culture. Organisational Culture in the Modern Context In today’s globalised and digitalised work environment, organisational culture is even more critical. Virtual teams, hybrid work models, and multicultural collaboration demand cultures that are adaptive, inclusive, and innovative. Recent literature highlights that: Inclusive cultures improve employee engagement and creativity (Kazabeyeva, 2024). Learning-oriented cultures support continuous improvement and adaptability in dynamic industries (Shakki & Rad, 2024). Sustainability-focused cultures enhance corporate reputation and align with growing social expectations (Otasowie et al., 2025). Thus, culture has evolved from being viewed as a static internal phenomenon to a dynamic and strategic enabler of organisational survival and growth. Organisational culture is more than a background element of organisational life—it is a defining force that shapes identity, behaviour, and effectiveness. By guiding employee behaviour, reinforcing organisational identity, and influencing strategic outcomes, culture acts as both a performance driver and a competitive differentiator. A strong, positive culture enhances motivation, job satisfaction, and innovation, while toxic or misaligned cultures undermine effectiveness. However, because culture is deeply embedded, managing and reshaping it requires careful leadership, alignment with strategy, and recognition of both formal and informal dynamics. In an era of rapid change, organisations that cultivate adaptive, inclusive, and innovation-oriented cultures will be better positioned to thrive. Understanding and managing organisational culture is, therefore, not merely a managerial responsibility but a strategic imperative for success. References Barney, J. B. (1986) ‘Organizational Culture: Can It Be a Source of Sustained Competitive Advantage?’, Academy of Management Review, 11(3), pp. 656–665. Cameron, K. S. and Quinn, R. E. (2011) Diagnosing and Changing Organizational Culture: Based on the Competing Values Framework. Jossey-Bass. Degbey, W. Y. and Ding, H. (2025) ‘Strengths-Based Leadership’, in Elgar Encyclopedia of Leadership. Edward Elgar. Islam, M. N., Hossain, S. F. A. and Cabral, P. M. F. (2025) ‘Motivation styles of leaders and organizational performance’, Frontiers in Organizational Psychology, 10, pp. 1–15. Kazabeyeva, V. (2024) ‘The essence and definition of corporate culture in modern … Read more

Organisational Structure: Crucial for Enhancing Efficiency, Innovation, and Employee Satisfaction

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Organisational structure is a fundamental element of organisational behaviour (OB), influencing how people work, interact, and perform within organisations. It represents both the formal and informal frameworks that govern the coordination of activities, communication, authority, and decision-making processes. An effective organisational structure ensures that tasks are appropriately distributed, responsibilities are clearly defined, and resources are optimally utilised to achieve organisational objectives (Robbins & Judge, 2021). Moreover, the structure directly impacts employee motivation, performance, and satisfaction, while also shaping the organisation’s ability to innovate and adapt to environmental change (Daft, 2015). Formal and Informal Structures The formal structure refers to the official arrangement of roles, responsibilities, and authority in an organisation. This is typically represented through organisational charts and job descriptions, which clarify reporting lines and accountability (Daft, 2015). A clear formal structure facilitates efficiency by reducing ambiguity, ensuring accountability, and providing employees with a roadmap of authority and responsibility (Jones, 2013). Formalisation is especially vital in large organisations where complex coordination is required. Conversely, the informal structure emerges from social interactions, friendships, and shared norms that develop organically among employees. Informal networks often cut across hierarchical boundaries, enabling faster communication and creating an environment where employees can exchange knowledge and provide mutual support (Shagerdi, 2025). These networks can improve innovation, as employees feel more comfortable sharing ideas outside rigid formal channels (Mintzberg, 1979). However, informal structures may also create subcultures or resistance to change if misaligned with organisational goals. Hierarchy and Communication Channels Hierarchy establishes the chain of command within an organisation, clarifying who makes decisions and who executes them. A tall hierarchy provides close supervision and clear accountability but risks bureaucratic delays and reduced employee autonomy. In contrast, a flat structure promotes empowerment and faster decision-making but may create confusion about authority (Pearce & Robinson, 2011). Equally important are communication channels, which may be vertical (flowing up and down between superiors and subordinates) or horizontal (between peers at the same level). Vertical communication ensures control and direction, while horizontal communication promotes collaboration and problem-solving (Robbins & Judge, 2021). Effective communication systems reduce misunderstandings, promote coordination, and foster a culture of trust. Research shows that open communication climates positively affect both employee satisfaction and organisational performance (Hu et al., 2025). Decision-Making Processes The degree of centralisation in decision-making is a key characteristic of organisational structure. Centralised structures concentrate authority at the top, ensuring consistency and control but potentially limiting responsiveness. Conversely, decentralised structures distribute authority closer to the operational level, encouraging innovation, flexibility, and faster responses to challenges (Gulati, Mayo & Nohria, 2016). For example, start-ups often adopt decentralised structures to harness creativity and employee initiative, while large corporations may rely on centralised structures to maintain stability and risk management (Callari & Puppione, 2025). The effectiveness of decision-making structures often depends on industry dynamics, organisational size, and strategic goals. Impact on Employee Behaviour, Motivation, and Performance Organisational structure significantly shapes employee behaviour, motivation, and performance. A well-designed structure ensures alignment between individual roles and organisational objectives, thereby enhancing efficiency and reducing conflict (Robbins & Judge, 2021). When employees have clarity regarding their responsibilities and career progression, motivation and engagement increase. A flat organisational structure, for instance, promotes autonomy and empowerment, allowing employees to feel a sense of ownership over their work. This fosters job satisfaction and encourages employees to go beyond prescribed roles, boosting both innovation and performance (Pearce & Robinson, 2011). However, poorly structured organisations can create ambiguity, role conflict, and frustration, leading to reduced morale and turnover (Wickramasinghe & Balasooriya, 2025). Moreover, informal structures are particularly influential in shaping employee behaviour. Strong social networks improve trust, knowledge sharing, and team cohesion, thereby promoting higher levels of engagement and innovation (Dewi & Alviani, 2025). Informal mentoring relationships also provide career support, increasing employee satisfaction and commitment to the organisation. Organisational Structure and Innovation The design of organisational structures is critical for fostering innovation. Highly centralised and rigid structures may discourage experimentation, as employees have limited autonomy and fear punishment for mistakes. In contrast, flexible structures encourage creative problem-solving and enable faster implementation of new ideas (Sikalumbi & Abudetse, 2025). Cross-functional teams and network-based structures enhance innovation by integrating diverse perspectives and knowledge across departments (Albeshchenko et al., 2025). Research further suggests that a culture of collaboration, supported by flexible structures, enhances both innovation outputs and employee well-being (Torres, 2025). Organisational Structure and Employee Satisfaction Employee satisfaction is closely tied to how well organisational structures support employee needs for clarity, recognition, and growth. Structures that promote career development opportunities, participation in decision-making, and recognition of contributions enhance job satisfaction (Wickramasinghe & Balasooriya, 2025). Conversely, overly hierarchical structures may alienate employees, reducing motivation and increasing turnover. Studies show that employees in collaborative structures experience higher levels of satisfaction, as they feel valued for their contributions and enjoy a stronger sense of belonging (Cumar et al., 2025). In digital workplaces, flatter and more adaptive structures have been linked with greater engagement, creativity, and resilience (Dash et al., 2025). In summary, organisational structure is not merely an administrative arrangement but a critical determinant of efficiency, innovation, and employee satisfaction. Both formal and informal structures shape how employees interact, communicate, and make decisions. While hierarchy provides clarity and control, flexibility and decentralisation enhance responsiveness and creativity. Importantly, structures that balance efficiency with autonomy are most effective in motivating employees and fostering innovation. As workplaces become more dynamic, organisations must continually adapt their structures to ensure they align with strategic objectives and employee expectations. By carefully designing and managing organisational structures, leaders can create environments that enhance performance, stimulate innovation, and promote employee well-being. References Albeshchenko, O., Klochan, V. & Veits, A. (2025) Strategic imperatives of managing the development of tourism and hotel business in territorial communities of the southern region of Ukraine. International Scientific Journal of Management, Economics and Finance, 5(2), pp. 77–95. Callari, T.C. & Puppione, L. (2025) ‘Meaningful work as shaped by employee work practices in human-AI collaborative environments’, European Journal of Innovation Management. [Online]. Available at: https://www.emerald.com/ejim/article/doi/10.1108/EJIM-11-2024-1339/1275327. Cumar, M., Kidaneb, … Read more

How to Conquer Procrastination and Meet Deadlines

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Procrastination is a pervasive and often misunderstood behavioural pattern that affects students, professionals, and even high achievers. It is a voluntary delay of an intended task despite foreseeing negative consequences (Steel, 2007). This self-defeating behaviour is not merely a result of laziness or poor time management; rather, it reflects deeper psychological, emotional, and environmental factors. By understanding these underlying causes and applying evidence-based strategies, individuals can overcome procrastination, enhance productivity, and consistently meet deadlines. 1.0 Understanding Procrastination Procrastination can be viewed as a self-regulation failure, where individuals struggle to align their intentions with actions. Dr. Piers Steel (2007), in The Procrastination Equation, identifies four central variables influencing procrastination: expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. For instance, when individuals doubt their ability to succeed (low expectancy) or perceive little value in a task, they are more likely to delay it. Conversely, impulsiveness—the tendency to prioritise short-term gratification—magnifies procrastination. From a psychological perspective, Ferrari, Johnson, and McCown (1995) argue that chronic procrastinators exhibit avoidance coping patterns, often using procrastination to protect their self-esteem from potential failure. Similarly, Tice and Baumeister (1997) demonstrated that procrastination provides temporary mood relief but increases long-term stress and poor performance outcomes. Neuropsychological studies also link procrastination to executive dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex, affecting planning and self-control (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013). These findings suggest procrastination is not purely a moral failing but a cognitive challenge that requires structured interventions and habitual retraining. 2.0 Strategies to Overcome Procrastination 2.1 Set Clear and Achievable Goals A common reason people procrastinate is the overwhelming nature of large, ambiguous tasks. Research by Locke and Latham (1990) in A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance reveals that specific, challenging goals enhance motivation and performance. Vague intentions such as “I’ll study later” often lead to avoidance, whereas precise goals like “I will summarise Chapter 3 between 2–3 p.m.” foster accountability and action. Breaking large tasks into smaller, measurable milestones provides a sense of progress and reduces anxiety. For instance, a student writing a dissertation might begin with outlining sections before drafting individual chapters. This step-by-step approach sustains momentum and focus, transforming an intimidating project into achievable portions. 2.2 Utilise Time Management Techniques Time management remains a cornerstone of anti-procrastination strategies. Alec Mackenzie and Pat Nickerson (2009), in The Time Trap, recommend prioritising tasks based on urgency and importance using the Eisenhower Matrix. This method helps individuals identify and focus on high-value activities rather than reacting to minor distractions. Another effective tool is the Pomodoro Technique, developed by Francesco Cirillo in the 1980s. This method breaks work into 25-minute intervals separated by 5-minute breaks. Research indicates this approach can enhance sustained attention and reduce cognitive fatigue (Cirillo, 2006). Digital apps such as Focus Booster and Forest have popularised this approach, allowing users to gamify productivity. Additionally, creating daily schedules, maintaining to-do lists, and designating specific workspaces contribute to consistency and discipline—two qualities essential for meeting deadlines. 2.3 Address the Psychological Aspects Many individuals procrastinate due to deeper psychological causes, including fear of failure, perfectionism, or low self-efficacy. According to Burka and Yuen (2008) in Procrastination: Why You Do It, What to Do About It Now, perfectionists delay tasks because they fear not meeting their own unrealistic standards. Similarly, people with low self-confidence may procrastinate to avoid confronting potential inadequacies. Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) principles can help break this pattern. Neil Fiore (2007), in The Now Habit, introduces “unscheduling”—a method that prioritises leisure first, making work less burdensome. By integrating enjoyable activities, individuals reframe work as a positive choice rather than a punishment. Furthermore, self-compassion—treating oneself with kindness during setbacks—has been shown to reduce procrastination by decreasing anxiety (Sirois, Yang & van Eerde, 2019). Thus, overcoming procrastination often requires addressing emotional barriers alongside behavioural change. 3.0 Practical Tips for Meeting Deadlines 3.1 Create a Detailed Plan Detailed planning transforms intentions into actionable steps. Project management tools such as Gantt charts, Asana, or Trello help visualise timelines, dependencies, and milestones. According to research by Claessens et al. (2007), individuals who employ structured planning report higher productivity and lower stress levels. A detailed plan should include specific start and finish times, buffer periods for unforeseen delays, and periodic reviews to assess progress. This systematic approach instils clarity, commitment, and control—three essential qualities for deadline adherence. 3.2 Set Interim Deadlines Instead of viewing a task as one monolithic deadline, it helps to create interim goals. These smaller checkpoints generate a sense of urgency and facilitate self-monitoring. For instance, a marketing professional preparing a campaign might set internal deadlines for research, design, and client review phases. According to Ariely and Wertenbroch (2002), individuals who impose self-set deadlines perform better than those with none, provided the deadlines are binding and realistic. 3.3 Limit Distractions Distractions are among the most pervasive triggers of procrastination. In an age of smartphones and social media, attention fragmentation is a major productivity killer. Cal Newport (2016), in Deep Work, argues that cultivating the ability to focus without distraction is the new “superpower” of the digital economy. He recommends setting time blocks for uninterrupted concentration and reducing digital interruptions through techniques like website blockers and notification silencing. Creating a distraction-free environment—by decluttering, using noise-cancelling headphones, or designating specific “focus hours”—can greatly enhance work quality and output consistency. 3.4 Seek Accountability Accountability amplifies motivation through external reinforcement. Studies show that when individuals share their goals or progress with others, they are significantly more likely to complete them (Harkin et al., 2016). This can take the form of a mentor, study group, or productivity partner. Regular check-ins foster commitment and external validation, helping sustain focus even when intrinsic motivation wanes. For example, writers often join accountability groups such as NaNoWriMo (National Novel Writing Month), where members commit to specific daily writing goals and share progress publicly—turning a solitary task into a communal endeavour. Procrastination is not an incurable flaw but a habitual response to discomfort, uncertainty, and self-doubt. Through conscious effort, structured planning, and psychological insight, individuals can rewire their responses and improve time management. Setting clear goals, … Read more

Understanding Group Behaviour: The Key to Creating a Positive and Productive Work Environment

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Group behaviour is a fundamental dimension of Organisational Behaviour (OB). It focuses on how individuals act collectively when they form groups and teams, and how these dynamics influence organisational performance. Scholars such as Robbins and Judge (2021) argue that understanding group behaviour is essential for fostering collaboration, building trust, and creating a positive organisational climate. Group behaviour includes topics such as leadership, communication, conflict resolution, and teamwork, each of which plays a central role in organisational success. Formation of Groups and Teams Groups and teams are integral to modern organisations. They form either formally, when organisations establish project teams, task forces, or committees, or informally, when individuals naturally connect through shared interests and relationships (Forsyth, 2018). Both types of groups influence organisational outcomes, as formal groups drive performance objectives, while informal groups foster social support and knowledge exchange. The process of group development has been widely explained through Tuckman’s model (1965), later refined by Tuckman and Jensen (1977). This framework identifies five stages: Forming: Members establish relationships and explore group purpose. Storming: Conflicts and disagreements emerge as individuals assert their perspectives. Norming: Cohesion develops as group norms and roles are established. Performing: The group achieves synergy and focuses on achieving objectives. Adjourning: The group dissolves upon task completion. Research has shown that groups that successfully progress through these stages tend to demonstrate higher effectiveness and satisfaction (Wheelan, 2009). Managers can support this process by fostering clear goals, trust, and shared accountability. Leadership and Group Behaviour Leadership is pivotal in shaping group behaviour and performance. Effective leaders navigate groups through developmental stages, resolve conflicts, and sustain motivation. Northouse (2018) distinguishes between transformational leadership, which inspires and empowers employees, and transactional leadership, which relies on rewards and penalties. Transformational leadership has been shown to enhance group cohesion, trust, and creativity, making it particularly valuable in today’s dynamic business environment (Bass and Riggio, 2006). On the other hand, transactional leadership is effective in structured contexts requiring compliance and efficiency. Leaders also influence group norms by modelling behaviours and setting expectations. Yukl (2013) notes that leaders who provide constructive feedback, promote ethical behaviour, and empower participation foster more resilient and productive teams. Moreover, research on emotional intelligence suggests that leaders with strong self-awareness and empathy are more capable of managing group dynamics and sustaining positive climates (Zahoor, 2025). Communication in Groups Communication is the lifeblood of group functioning. It facilitates the sharing of knowledge, coordination of tasks, and resolution of problems. As Keyton (2017) explains, effective communication is crucial for developing trust, avoiding misunderstandings, and ensuring that all voices are heard. In today’s organisations, communication occurs across multiple platforms—face-to-face interactions, emails, collaborative software, and virtual meetings. Brown (2019) argues that barriers to communication, such as cultural differences, unclear messages, or lack of feedback, can undermine group performance. High-performing teams embrace practices such as active listening, open dialogue, and inclusivity. Empirical research confirms that inclusive communication enhances psychological safety, enabling employees to express ideas without fear of negative consequences (Edmondson, 2012). Conflict Resolution Conflict is inevitable in groups due to differences in personalities, goals, and values. However, the way conflict is managed determines whether it becomes destructive or constructive. Rahim (2011) emphasises that constructive conflict resolution strengthens relationships, fosters innovation, and prevents escalation. Thomas and Kilmann (2008) outline five strategies for conflict resolution: Avoiding: Withdrawing from conflict. Accommodating: Prioritising others’ needs. Competing: Pursuing one’s own objectives assertively. Compromising: Seeking a middle ground. Collaborating: Working together for mutually beneficial solutions. Collaborative approaches are most effective in sustaining group cohesion and long-term performance. In contrast, avoidance and competing strategies may undermine trust if overused (DeChurch and Marks, 2001). Managers therefore need to equip teams with conflict management skills and promote an environment of open dialogue. Teamwork and Collaboration Teamwork represents the essence of group behaviour in organisations. Kozlowski and Ilgen (2006) argue that effective teamwork requires shared responsibility, interdependence, and collective problem-solving. High-performing teams display trust, mutual respect, and a shared vision (Levi, 2015). Research demonstrates that teamwork enhances innovation, adaptability, and productivity by integrating diverse perspectives (Edmondson, 2012). For instance, Weinberger and Carter (2025) show that social networks within organisations mediate the relationship between teamwork and performance by facilitating knowledge sharing. Collaboration is particularly important in cross-functional and multicultural teams. Effective managers foster collaboration by setting collective goals, encouraging diversity of thought, and rewarding team-based outcomes (Alsalman and Chyad, 2025). In doing so, they create environments where individuals feel valued and empowered to contribute. Contemporary Perspectives on Group Behaviour Recent research has expanded traditional understandings of group behaviour by highlighting the role of soft skills, emotional intelligence, and team coaching. Bajpai (2025) notes that soft skills such as empathy, communication, and conflict resolution are critical in modern workplaces. Similarly, Bagherieh Mashadi and Azizi (2025) emphasise that team coaching enhances collective learning and adaptability. Moreover, the rise of remote and hybrid work has introduced new challenges in sustaining group cohesion and communication. Studies highlight that virtual teams require intentional strategies to build trust, maintain engagement, and prevent isolation (Gibson and Gibbs, 2006). Managers must therefore adapt leadership and communication strategies to digital contexts. Understanding group behaviour is essential for building positive and productive work environments. The study of how groups form, communicate, resolve conflict, and collaborate reveals critical insights for managers and leaders. Effective leadership fosters cohesion, communication sustains collaboration, conflict resolution prevents divisions, and teamwork drives innovation and performance. In today’s rapidly changing organisational landscape, managers must embrace inclusive leadership, foster open communication, and invest in conflict management and teamwork skills. By doing so, they can create organisational cultures that thrive on collaboration, trust, and shared success. References Alsalman, F. A. and Chyad, S. A. (2025) ‘Impact of emotional intelligence on leadership and team dynamics in agile software engineering projects’, IEEE Access. Available at: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/10973058/ [Accessed 20 Aug 2025]. Bagherieh Mashadi, A. and Azizi, M. (2025) ‘Conceptualizing team coaching: from origin to evolution’, Journal of Entrepreneurship Development, 28(2). Available at: https://jed.ut.ac.ir/article_101736.html [Accessed 20 Aug 2025]. Bajpai, M. (2025) ‘Soft skills development: A crucial part of … Read more

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