Research across cognitive psychology, neuroscience and educational science consistently demonstrates that memory is not a fixed trait but a dynamic cognitive process involving encoding, storage and retrieval (Baddeley, Eysenck and Anderson, 2020; Anderson, 2020). While genetic and neurobiological factors influence baseline cognitive capacity, substantial evidence shows that memory performance can be significantly improved through deliberate training techniques, including mnemonics, chunking, spaced repetition and the method of loci (Lau-Zhu, Henson and Holmes, 2019; Portrat and Lemaire, 2015). Contemporary scholarship therefore supports the view that memory is not something we simply “have”, but something we actively “do”.
1.0 Understanding Memory: A Cognitive Process
Memory is defined as the cognitive process by which information is encoded, stored and retrieved in the brain (Baddeley, Eysenck and Anderson, 2020). Encoding involves transforming sensory input into a meaningful representation. Storage refers to maintaining that information over time. Retrieval allows previously stored information to be accessed when needed.
Memory is central to learning, decision-making, problem-solving and social interaction. Without memory, language acquisition, skill development and identity formation would be impossible. Anderson (2020) explains that memory systems include working memory, responsible for temporary information processing, and long-term memory, which stores knowledge, experiences and procedural skills.
Importantly, memory is not static. Neuroscientific evidence shows that memory traces are strengthened or weakened depending on use, rehearsal and attention (Lau-Zhu, Henson and Holmes, 2019). This supports the assertion that there is no such thing as a “good” or “bad” memory, but rather a TRAINED MEMORY and an UNTRAINED MEMORY.
2.0 Is Memory Fixed? Genetics and Neuroplasticity
Research indicates that approximately 30–50% of cognitive variability may be influenced by genetic factors (Plomin and Deary, 2015). However, this leaves significant scope for environmental influence and training.
Crucially, the brain exhibits neuroplasticity, meaning it can reorganise and form new neural connections throughout life (Kolb and Whishaw, 2021). Memory is therefore not fixed like shoe size; it is a malleable capacity that grows through use.
The NHS (2023) and the World Health Organization (2022) both emphasise lifestyle factors—such as sleep, physical activity and cognitive stimulation—as essential for maintaining and enhancing cognitive function. These findings reinforce the principle that memory can be improved intentionally.
3.0 Trained Memory: Deliberate Cognitive Enhancement
Trained memory refers to the intentional improvement of memory abilities through systematic practice and evidence-based strategies. Unlike innate variation in cognitive speed or capacity, trained memory focuses on applying techniques that optimise encoding and retrieval.
Elite memory competitors, for example, do not possess fundamentally different brains; rather, they use highly structured strategies such as the method of loci, demonstrating that exceptional recall can result from training (Maguire et al., 2003).
Training memory is therefore comparable to strengthening a muscle: with consistent practice, performance improves.
4.0 Evidence-Based Memory Techniques
4.1 Mnemonic Devices
Mnemonics are structured memory aids that enhance encoding through imagery, pattern or association. Common forms include:
- Acronyms (e.g., “HOMES” for the Great Lakes)
- Acrostics
- Visual imagery
- The method of loci (memory palace)
The method of loci involves mentally placing information within a familiar spatial environment. Neuroscientific research shows that this technique activates regions associated with spatial navigation, such as the hippocampus (Maguire et al., 2003). By leveraging spatial memory systems, recall becomes more reliable.
Example: A student memorising a speech might imagine placing each paragraph in different rooms of their house.
4.2 Chunking
Chunking involves organising large amounts of information into meaningful groups. Miller’s classic research suggested that working memory capacity is limited, but grouping items into patterns expands recall ability (Baddeley, Eysenck and Anderson, 2020).
For instance, remembering the number 149217761945 becomes easier when chunked into historical dates: 1492, 1776, 1945.
Chunking reduces cognitive load and improves encoding efficiency.
4.3 Repetition and Spaced Rehearsal
Repetition strengthens memory traces through repeated retrieval. However, research shows that spaced repetition—reviewing information at increasing intervals—is far superior to cramming (Lau-Zhu, Henson and Holmes, 2019).
The “spacing effect” enhances long-term retention because retrieval effort strengthens consolidation pathways.
Example: Reviewing vocabulary one day, three days and one week later improves retention more than reviewing five times in one sitting.
4.3 Mind Mapping
Mind mapping is a visual organisation strategy that connects ideas hierarchically. By integrating imagery and semantic relationships, mind maps enhance both encoding and retrieval pathways (Buzan and Buzan, 2010).
Visual structuring aids comprehension and strengthens associative networks in long-term memory.
4.5 Association
Association techniques link new information to existing knowledge. Anderson (2020) notes that meaningful encoding enhances recall probability. The deeper and more elaborate the connection, the stronger the memory trace.
For example, linking a new colleague’s name “Rose” with an image of a red rose increases recall accuracy.
4.6 Memory Palaces
The memory palace, a sophisticated application of the method of loci, relies on structured spatial imagery. Historical records show that ancient Greek and Roman scholars used this technique for public speaking.
Modern neuroimaging confirms that trained individuals using this strategy exhibit enhanced activation in spatial navigation networks (Maguire et al., 2003).
Cognitive Effort and Maintenance
Training memory requires dedication, consistency and cognitive effort. Portrat and Lemaire (2015) highlight the importance of attentional control in working memory performance. Without sustained attention, encoding fails.
Furthermore, lifestyle factors influence memory training outcomes:
- Sleep consolidates memory traces (Walker, 2017).
- Physical activity enhances hippocampal health (WHO, 2022).
- Stress management reduces cortisol-related memory impairment.
In the age of digital dependency, reliance on smartphones may reduce active recall practice. Hartmann et al. (2020) found mixed evidence regarding digital presence and memory performance, but the broader concern remains: outsourcing memory may weaken retrieval habits.
Our minds, like our devices, require regular “recharging” through rest and deliberate engagement.
Memory as a Skill, Not a Trait
The distinction between TRAINED MEMORY and UNTRAINED MEMORY reflects a broader psychological principle: abilities improve with structured practice. Just as literacy and numeracy develop through repetition and guided learning, memory improves through strategic rehearsal.
The claim that “memory is not a noun but a process” aligns with cognitive theory. Memory is an active set of behaviours—attention, rehearsal, association and retrieval.
In practical terms, students, professionals and older adults can significantly improve retention by applying structured techniques rather than relying on passive rereading.
Memory is a dynamic, trainable cognitive system shaped by biology, environment and deliberate practice. While genetics influence baseline capacity, substantial evidence confirms that two-thirds of memory performance is modifiable through training and lifestyle factors. Techniques such as mnemonics, chunking, spaced repetition, mind mapping and memory palaces are supported by cognitive science and neuroimaging research.
In an era of information overload, cultivating trained memory is not merely advantageous—it is essential. Memory is not something we simply possess; it is something we practise. With consistency and intention, it can grow across the lifespan.
References
Anderson, J.R. (2020) Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications. 9th edn. New York: Worth Publishers.
Baddeley, A., Eysenck, M.W. and Anderson, M.C. (2020) Memory. 3rd edn. London: Psychology Press.
Buzan, T. and Buzan, B. (2010) The Mind Map Book. London: BBC Active.
Hartmann, M. et al. (2020) ‘Does a smartphone on the desk drain our brain?’, Consciousness and Cognition, 87. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053810020301975.
Kolb, B. and Whishaw, I.Q. (2021) An Introduction to Brain and Behaviour. 6th edn. New York: Worth Publishers.
Lau-Zhu, A., Henson, R.N. and Holmes, E.A. (2019) ‘Intrusive memories and voluntary memory’, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 148(12), pp. 2154–2172.
Maguire, E.A. et al. (2003) ‘Routes to remembering: The brains behind superior memory’, Nature Neuroscience, 6(1), pp. 90–95.
NHS (2023) Memory and brain health. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk.
Plomin, R. and Deary, I.J. (2015) ‘Genetics and intelligence differences’, Molecular Psychiatry, 20, pp. 98–108.
World Health Organization (2022) Risk reduction of cognitive decline and dementia. Geneva: WHO.
