Mohammad T Islam (BSc, MBA, MEd)

Learning by Listening: An Essential Academic Skill

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In higher education, learning by listening plays a central role in the learning process. While reading, writing, and critical thinking are often emphasised, listening skills are equally essential, especially in lectures, seminars, and discussions. Effective listening enables students to engage actively with academic content, integrate information, and apply it critically to assignments and examinations. However, research indicates that listening is not an instinctive skill but one that must be consciously developed (Learning by Listening, n.d.). This article explores the significance of learning by listening, strategies for improving listening skills, and its broader implications for academic success. The Importance of Listening in Learning Listening is more than hearing words; it is an active cognitive process involving interpretation, evaluation, and memory. According to Rost (2011), listening is the foundation of language acquisition and comprehension, underpinning both academic and social communication. In the university context, lectures remain a primary source of information, making effective listening crucial for knowledge retention and critical analysis. For example, when a lecturer introduces complex theories in economics, such as Keynesian fiscal policy, a student who listens actively can distinguish between the main ideas, supporting arguments, and illustrative examples. Conversely, passive listening often results in superficial understanding and poor academic performance. Research also suggests that students who engage in active listening demonstrate higher levels of academic achievement. A study by Vandergrift and Baker (2015) highlights the positive correlation between metacognitive listening strategies—such as planning, monitoring, and evaluating one’s listening—and overall academic success. Challenges to Effective Listening Despite its importance, many students face challenges in developing strong listening skills. The uploaded textbook excerpt emphasises that “people do not instinctively listen well” and that listening is a skill which must be developed (Learning by Listening, n.d., p. 1). Several barriers are commonly identified in the literature: Lack of motivation – Students often fail to recognise why a lecture is relevant, leading to disengagement (Brownell, 2012). Environmental distractions – Noise, poor acoustics, or seating positions can undermine concentration (Mendelsohn, 1998). Cognitive overload – The brain processes information faster than people speak, making it easy for thoughts to wander (Field, 2008). Prejudice against the speaker or topic – Personal biases can cause students to dismiss important content prematurely (Learning by Listening, n.d.). For instance, a student in a history lecture may disregard a lecturer’s argument due to disagreement with their political stance. In doing so, they risk missing the core academic content, which may be necessary for critical evaluation in essays and exams. Strategies for Effective Listening The textbook “Learning by Listening” outlines eight strategies to improve listening skills in academic contexts (Learning by Listening, n.d.). These strategies align closely with research in educational psychology and communication studies. Identify relevance – Determining why information is important increases motivation and attention (Wolvin & Coakley, 2000). Take responsibility for learning – Recognising that understanding depends on the learner fosters active engagement. Manage the environment – Choosing seating with fewer distractions enhances concentration (Field, 2008). Suspend judgement – Understanding before rejecting ensures more balanced critical thinking. Recognise organisational patterns – Most lecturers use structured outlines; identifying these helps students follow arguments logically. Focus on main ideas – Distinguishing between key concepts and minor details aids retention and deeper learning (Rost, 2011). Practise sustained attention – Strengthening attention span through deliberate effort reduces mind wandering. Note-taking – Writing in abbreviated form with keywords and symbols reinforces memory and comprehension. These strategies can be observed in practice. For example, law students often use the Cornell Note-Taking System, which combines structured note-taking with reflective summarisation, thereby enhancing both listening and critical engagement (Pauk & Owens, 2010). Active Listening in Academic Contexts Beyond individual strategies, the concept of active listening is widely promoted in higher education. Active listening involves not only hearing but also providing feedback signals such as nodding, paraphrasing, or asking clarifying questions. According to Nichols and Stevens (2008), active listening promotes deeper learning because it forces learners to process information critically. In group discussions or seminars, active listening is particularly valuable. For instance, in a sociology seminar on globalisation, students who listen actively can identify opposing viewpoints, ask meaningful questions, and contribute constructively to debates. This not only enhances personal learning but also enriches collective knowledge exchange within the group. The Role of Technology in Listening Modern learning environments increasingly incorporate digital tools that influence how students listen. Lecture recordings, podcasts, and online webinars allow students to replay and review content. According to Evans (2008), recorded lectures reduce cognitive overload by enabling students to listen at their own pace. However, reliance on recordings may also reduce in-class engagement if students adopt a passive approach. Furthermore, speech-to-text technologies and AI-assisted note-taking tools are becoming common in universities. These tools can aid students with learning difficulties or language barriers, but they should be seen as supplements rather than substitutes for active listening (Firth, 2019). Cultural Dimensions of Listening Listening behaviours also vary across cultural contexts. In some cultures, silence during listening is valued as a sign of respect and concentration, while in others, verbal backchanneling (e.g., “yes,” “right,” “I see”) is expected. Misinterpretations of listening behaviours can create barriers in multicultural classrooms. Flowerdew and Miller (2005) note that international students often struggle with academic listening due to differences in speech rate, idiomatic expressions, and discourse patterns. For example, an international student in the UK may find it challenging to follow a lecture full of colloquial phrases, even though they are proficient in English. Here, pre-reading materials and listening practice exercises can significantly enhance comprehension. Implications for Academic Success The development of strong listening skills has profound implications for academic and professional success. In academic contexts, effective listening leads to better comprehension, more accurate note-taking, and stronger critical thinking. Professionally, listening is cited as one of the most desirable employability skills by employers across industries (Cottrell, 2019). Consider the example of medical students: effective listening in lectures and during clinical training ensures accurate knowledge acquisition. Later, as practising doctors, their ability to listen carefully to patients’ concerns directly affects … Read more

Putting Sentences Together: Rules and Examples to Help You Build Longer Sentences

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The ability to putting sentences together effectively is a vital skill in both spoken and written communication. Whether in academic writing, professional contexts, or creative expression, sentences form the basic units of meaning. By learning the rules for combining sentences, writers can develop more sophisticated, nuanced, and engaging texts. However, longer sentences must be carefully managed to maintain clarity and coherence. This article discusses the principles of sentence combination, provides examples, and highlights strategies that enable learners to construct longer, well-structured sentences. What is a Sentence? A sentence is traditionally defined as a group of words that expresses a complete thought, typically containing a subject and a predicate (Quirk et al., 1985). Sentences can be categorised into four main types: Simple sentences – containing one independent clause: “The child is reading.” Compound sentences – two independent clauses joined by a conjunction: “The child is reading, and the teacher is writing.” Complex sentences – one independent clause with at least one dependent clause: “The child is reading because the teacher assigned homework.” Compound-complex sentences – a mix of compound and complex structures: “The child is reading, and the teacher is writing while the classroom is quiet.” Understanding these categories provides the foundation for building longer sentences. Why Combine Sentences? There are several reasons why combining sentences is important: Clarity and precision – Longer sentences allow writers to add detail, qualifications, and nuances (Strunk & White, 2000). Variety and rhythm – A mix of short and long sentences creates engaging writing and prevents monotony (Carter & McCarthy, 2006). Logical connections – Sentence combination demonstrates the relationships between ideas, such as cause and effect, contrast, or condition (Halliday, 2004). Academic expectations – In higher education, extended sentences often reflect critical thinking and argument development (Swales & Feak, 2012). However, it is essential to avoid run-on sentences and maintain balance, as excessive length may obscure meaning. Rules for Putting Sentences Together 1.0 Use Coordinating Conjunctions Coordinating conjunctions connect two independent clauses of equal importance. The seven main coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (FANBOYS) (Azar & Hagen, 2009). Example: Short: “The sun set. The sky turned orange.” Longer: “The sun set, and the sky turned orange.” This method works best when ideas are closely related. 2.0 Use Subordinating Conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent clauses, showing a relationship such as cause, condition, or time. Common subordinators include because, although, since, if, when. Example: Short: “She revised. She passed her exam.” Longer: “She passed her exam because she revised.” This adds depth by showing how one idea depends on the other. 3.0 Use Relative Clauses Relative pronouns such as who, which, that, whose, where allow additional information to be embedded into a sentence (Biber et al., 1999). Example: Short: “I met a teacher. The teacher inspired me.” Longer: “I met a teacher who inspired me.” Relative clauses reduce repetition and integrate details smoothly. 4.0 Use Participial Phrases Participial phrases can extend sentences by adding descriptive elements. Example: Short: “The boy ran to school. He was carrying a heavy bag.” Longer: “The boy, carrying a heavy bag, ran to school.” This creates more compact, flowing sentences. 5.0 Use Appositives An appositive renames or explains a noun within a sentence. Example: Short: “London is the capital. It is a busy city.” Longer: “London, the capital of the United Kingdom, is a busy city.” Appositives provide additional information without creating a new sentence. 6.0 Use Conjunctive Adverbs Words such as however, therefore, moreover, consequently can link ideas across clauses or sentences. Example: Short: “The evidence was clear. The jury remained unconvinced.” Longer: “The evidence was clear; however, the jury remained unconvinced.” This form is common in formal and academic writing. Examples of Sentence Combination in Context Academic Writing Original: “The study included 200 participants. They were selected randomly. They represented different age groups.” Combined: “The study included 200 participants, who were selected randomly and represented different age groups.” Professional Writing Original: “The report is finished. It will be submitted tomorrow.” Combined: “The report, which is now finished, will be submitted tomorrow.” Creative Writing Original: “The rain fell. It hit the window. It sounded like music.” Combined: “The rain fell against the window, sounding like music.” Pedagogical Perspectives Research in applied linguistics shows that sentence-combining exercises improve writing fluency and syntactic maturity (Strong, 1986; Saddler & Graham, 2005). Sentence combining encourages learners to experiment with multiple structures, enhancing both accuracy and creativity. For example, a classroom activity might involve students taking three simple sentences—“The cat slept. The cat was on the sofa. The sofa was near the fire.”—and producing: “The cat slept on the sofa, which was near the fire.” Such exercises support scaffolding in writing development (Vygotsky, 1978). Common Pitfalls and How to Avoid Them While longer sentences are valuable, writers should be cautious of: Run-on sentences – joining clauses without appropriate punctuation: Incorrect: “She likes reading she dislikes writing.” Correct: “She likes reading, but she dislikes writing.” Overloading with details – making sentences too dense: Problematic: “The teacher, who was very experienced and had taught for many years and was respected by students, gave a lecture.” Improved: “The experienced teacher, respected by students, gave a lecture.” Loss of clarity – using complex structures unnecessarily. Effective writing balances long and short sentences for readability. Learning to put sentences together is an essential step towards achieving more effective, varied, and engaging writing. Techniques such as using conjunctions, relative clauses, participial phrases, appositives, and conjunctive adverbs allow writers to build longer sentences while maintaining clarity. Sentence-combining exercises, supported by research in education and linguistics, have proven effective in developing writing maturity. Ultimately, the goal is not to write the longest possible sentence, but to use sentence length and structure strategically to convey meaning clearly and persuasively. References Azar, B. & Hagen, S. (2009). Understanding and Using English Grammar. 4th ed. Pearson Longman, New York. Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S. & Finegan, E. (1999). Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Pearson, London. Carter, … Read more

Notice and Note Signposts: Enhancing Reading Comprehension

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Reading is not simply about decoding words but about making meaning from texts. Effective readers actively engage with the material, asking questions, making inferences, and identifying key patterns. The Notice and Note signposts, developed by Beers and Probst (2012), provide a framework for readers to recognise significant textual moments and reflect on their meaning. These signposts include Contrasts and Contradictions, Aha Moments, Tough Questions, Words from the Wiser, Again and Again, and Memory Moments. This article explores the importance of these signposts in developing critical reading skills, illustrates their application with examples, and considers their role in improving academic success. Contrasts and Contradictions The Contrasts and Contradictions signpost occurs when a character’s actions or thoughts deviate from their usual behaviour. Beers and Probst (2012) suggest that these moments prompt readers to ask: “Why is the character doing that?”. This encourages students to make predictions, inferences, and connections to character development. For example, in Romeo and Juliet, Juliet initially obeys her family’s wishes, but her sudden decision to defy them by marrying Romeo marks a contradiction. Analysing this moment reveals key insights into her personal growth and the play’s central conflict. According to Cottrell (2019), identifying contradictions helps learners critically evaluate human behaviour and motives, fostering empathy and analytical thinking. Research further supports this: Lupo et al. (2019) found that secondary students who used signpost strategies demonstrated improved inferential comprehension compared to control groups. Aha Moments An Aha Moment occurs when a character realises or understands something important. Beers and Probst (2012) advise readers to ask: “How might this change things?”. These moments often reveal themes or turning points in narratives. For instance, in George Orwell’s 1984, Winston’s recognition of the Party’s manipulation is an Aha Moment that shifts the trajectory of his rebellion. Such moments deepen readers’ understanding of the themes of power and control. Educational psychology supports the importance of recognising realisations. According to Mayer (2011), metacognitive awareness—thinking about one’s own thinking—is essential for deep learning. Identifying Aha Moments mirrors this process, as readers reflect on the implications of sudden insights. Tough Questions The Tough Questions signpost appears when a character wrestles with difficult, often moral, dilemmas. These instances prompt readers to ask: “What does this question make me wonder about?”. For example, in Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird, Scout frequently poses questions about justice and morality, such as why people treat others differently because of race. Analysing these questions allows readers to explore issues of ethics, society, and personal responsibility. According to King (1992), encouraging students to generate and engage with questions leads to deeper comprehension and critical inquiry. Similarly, McNamara (2004) notes that questioning strategies help learners monitor their understanding and make connections between text and prior knowledge. Words from the Wiser The Words from the Wiser signpost occurs when an older or more experienced character offers advice to the protagonist. Readers are encouraged to ask: “What is the life lesson, and how might it affect the character?”. For example, in The Lion King, Mufasa’s advice to Simba about responsibility becomes a guiding principle for his later decisions. These moments often highlight themes or moral lessons within a narrative. From a pedagogical perspective, recognising mentorship and advice in texts helps students understand how wisdom is transmitted through storytelling. Vygotsky’s (1978) social development theory reinforces this, emphasising the role of guidance and advice in learning. Identifying this signpost allows readers to reflect on their own experiences with guidance and mentorship. Again and Again The Again and Again signpost appears when a word, phrase, or idea is repeated throughout a text. Beers and Probst (2012) suggest asking: “Why does this keep showing up again and again?”. This technique often highlights themes, motifs, or foreshadowing. For example, in The Great Gatsby, the repeated references to the green light symbolise Gatsby’s longing and the broader theme of the American Dream. Identifying these repetitions encourages students to consider how language shapes meaning. Research in literary analysis supports this approach. Tannen (2007) notes that repetition in discourse is a powerful tool for emphasis and thematic development. By training students to notice such repetitions, educators help them become more attentive and analytical readers. Memory Moments The Memory Moment signpost occurs when the narrative is interrupted by a character’s recollection. Readers are advised to ask: “Why might this memory be important?”. For instance, in Toni Morrison’s Beloved, Sethe’s memories of slavery are crucial in shaping the novel’s exploration of trauma and identity. Such memories provide context, backstory, and emotional depth, helping readers understand the motivations of characters. Psychological studies confirm the role of memory in narrative comprehension. According to Schacter (1999), personal memories in texts act as cognitive anchors, connecting past experiences to present events. Identifying Memory Moments allows readers to link plot developments with underlying themes. Academic and Pedagogical Value of Signposts The Notice and Note signposts are valuable because they equip readers with structured strategies for engaging with texts. Rather than passively absorbing content, students are encouraged to stop, reflect, and ask questions. This aligns with active reading models described by Grabe and Stoller (2011), which emphasise monitoring comprehension and engaging in higher-order thinking. Educators also report that teaching signposts improves student engagement and independence. According to Fisher and Frey (2015), students who apply these strategies are more likely to transfer reading skills across subjects, from literature to history and science. The Notice and Note signposts—Contrasts and Contradictions, Aha Moments, Tough Questions, Words from the Wiser, Again and Again, and Memory Moments—provide readers with practical strategies for deeper engagement with texts. By prompting readers to pause, reflect, and question, these signposts transform reading into an active, analytical process. Their value lies not only in improving literary analysis but also in fostering critical thinking, empathy, and comprehension across disciplines. As educational research and classroom practice demonstrate, the integration of signpost strategies equips learners with the skills needed to navigate both academic texts and broader life challenges. References Beers, K. and Probst, R. (2012) Notice and note: Strategies for close reading. Portsmouth, NH: … Read more

Reading Skills: Strategies To Enhance Academic Performance

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In both academic and professional environments, reading skills are essential for processing, evaluating, and applying information effectively. Developing the ability to distinguish fact from opinion, identify the purpose of a text, apply techniques such as skimming and scanning, and produce summaries are crucial components of literacy and critical thinking (Ismail et al., 2025). This essay examines these key reading skills, their significance, and their application with relevant examples. Fact versus Opinion One of the most fundamental reading skills is distinguishing between facts and opinions. A fact is an objective statement that can be verified with evidence, such as “The capital of France is Paris.” In contrast, an opinion is subjective, reflecting beliefs or attitudes, for example, “Paris is the most beautiful city in the world.” According to Cottrell (2019), the ability to differentiate fact from opinion enables students to critically evaluate arguments, especially in persuasive texts such as news articles or political speeches. Research by Hartig et al. (2023) indicates that students who lack this skill are more susceptible to misinformation. For instance, in health communication, the statement “Smoking increases the risk of lung cancer” is a fact supported by medical evidence, whereas “E-cigarettes are a safe alternative” may be an opinion, depending on the evidence available. Developing this skill fosters critical literacy, essential for academic study and informed citizenship. Types of Texts: Descriptive, Informative, Instructional, and Persuasive Recognising the purpose and structure of a text is another vital reading skill. Texts can generally be categorised as descriptive, informative, instructional, or persuasive (Joshi, 2025). Descriptive texts provide vivid imagery or sensory detail. For example, travel writing that describes landscapes or literature that portrays characters relies heavily on adjectives and imagery. Informative texts aim to provide knowledge or explain concepts, such as encyclopaedia entries or scientific reports. These typically present facts, data, and objective explanations. Instructional texts give directions or explain how to perform tasks. Examples include recipes, manuals, or training guides. According to Roy (2010), such texts often use imperative verbs and sequential structures. Persuasive texts seek to influence the reader’s attitudes or actions. Advertising, opinion columns, and political speeches often use emotive language, rhetorical devices, and selective facts to appeal to the reader (Haloho, 2019). Being able to identify the type of text helps readers adopt appropriate strategies. For instance, when engaging with a persuasive essay, a critical reader should look for unsupported claims, while reading an instructional manual requires attention to sequential details. Skimming and Scanning Skimming and scanning are efficient reading strategies that allow readers to quickly locate and process information. Skimming involves rapidly reading a text to grasp its general meaning. This technique is often used when surveying a research article to identify the main argument or conclusions (Fauzi, 2018). Scanning is the process of looking for specific information, such as dates, figures, or keywords. Students preparing for exams often use scanning to locate precise definitions or examples in their notes (Fatmawati, 2014). Research indicates that both skimming and scanning improve reading speed without significantly reducing comprehension when used appropriately (Indah, 2018). For example, a law student might skim a legal judgement to understand the case outcome before scanning the document for specific legal principles. Roy (2010) further highlights their importance in professional contexts, noting that business managers often scan documents for critical instructions while skimming executive summaries to save time. Summarising Summarising is the skill of condensing information while preserving key ideas and meaning. Unlike paraphrasing, which rewords content, summarising requires prioritising essential points and discarding less relevant details (Delgado-Osorio et al., 2023). Effective summarising supports learning by reinforcing memory and demonstrating comprehension. According to Astika (2025), writing summaries requires students to interpret texts, evaluate their central message, and express ideas in their own words. This process aligns with Bloom’s taxonomy, which views synthesis and evaluation as higher-order thinking skills. For instance, after reading a research article on climate change, a student’s summary might note the study’s methodology, main findings, and implications while omitting secondary details. Summarising is therefore crucial for academic writing, particularly in literature reviews and research reports. Integration of Reading Skills While each reading skill can be taught individually, they often work best when integrated. For example, when reading a persuasive article, students should: Skim the text to grasp the main argument. Identify whether statements are facts or opinions. Recognise the text as persuasive, prompting a critical stance. Scan for key statistics or claims supporting the argument. Summarise the article to consolidate understanding. This holistic approach develops both efficiency and critical literacy, enabling readers to manage complex academic materials. Reading is not a passive process but an active, purposeful skill that involves evaluating and interacting with texts. Distinguishing fact from opinion helps readers maintain objectivity, while recognising whether texts are descriptive, informative, instructional, or persuasive supports strategic reading. The use of skimming and scanning improves efficiency, and summarising consolidates comprehension. Together, these skills enhance academic performance and professional competence. As higher education and workplaces increasingly demand critical literacy, the mastery of these reading skills remains indispensable. References Astika, G. (2025) Mastering intensive reading: Skills for academic and critical understanding. London: Routledge. Cottrell, S. (2019) The study skills handbook. 5th edn. London: Macmillan. Delgado-Osorio, X., Koval, V. and Hartig, J. (2023) ‘Strategic processing of source text in reading-into-writing tasks: A comparison between summary and argumentative tasks’, Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 61, pp. 1–12. Fauzi, I. (2018) ‘The effectiveness of skimming and scanning strategies in improving comprehension and reading speed rates for the students of English study program’, Paradigma: Jurnal Filsafat, Sains, Teknologi, 15(3), pp. 55–64. Fatmawati, Y. (2014) ‘The impact of using skimming and scanning strategies of descriptive text towards students’ reading comprehension’, International Conference on Education and Language (ICEL), pp. 121–130. Haloho, F. (2019) ‘The effect of skimming and scanning technique on students’ reading comprehension in narrative text’, Repository.uhn.ac.id, pp. 45–62. Hartig, J., Delgado-Osorio, X. and Koval, V. (2023) ‘Strategic reading and distinguishing fact from opinion in academic texts’, Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 61, pp. 1–15. Indah, … Read more

What Makes English Academic?

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The concept of academic English is central to success in higher education. Unlike everyday communication, academic English is characterised not by the ideas themselves but by the way those ideas are presented and expressed (Wilson, n.d.). It provides a structured, evidence-based, and formal mode of communication that aligns with the conventions of the academy. This essay explores the defining features of academic English, focusing on the presentation of ideas, expression of arguments, and the use of appropriate style and vocabulary. Examples will illustrate how academic English functions in practice, drawing on textbooks, scholarly journals, and guidance from reputable educational sources. Presenting Ideas in Academic English One of the hallmarks of academic English is the logical organisation of ideas. According to Wilson (n.d.), ideas should follow a structured order, beginning with a plan, grouping related points, and supporting each paragraph with a topic sentence that introduces its focus. This emphasis on logical flow ensures that arguments are easy to follow and coherent. For example, in a research paper examining the effectiveness of speed cameras in preventing road traffic accidents published in the British Medical Journal (BMJ, 2005), the authors structured their argument carefully: presenting a clear topic sentence, supporting it with evidence from randomised controlled trials, and offering cautious alternatives where evidence was insufficient. This systematic ordering allowed the audience to follow a complex debate with clarity. This approach reflects Swales’ (1990) influential concept of the “moves” in academic discourse, where writing progresses through identifiable stages such as establishing territory, identifying a niche, and occupying that niche. Without such structure, ideas risk becoming fragmented and less persuasive. Using Evidence Academic English is distinguished by its reliance on evidence rather than personal opinion. Students are expected to draw upon reliable sources, compare viewpoints, and acknowledge areas of agreement and disagreement (Wilson, n.d.). This reflects the broader principle of knowledge construction in academia, which values argumentation based on verifiable data. Cottrell (2019) emphasises that critical analysis in academic writing requires synthesising material from multiple authors rather than relying on a single source. For example, when discussing climate change, an academic essay would not simply state that “climate change is bad,” but would cite scientific consensus from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2021) alongside counter-arguments from economists concerned about adaptation costs. This balanced approach demonstrates both breadth and depth of understanding. Importantly, evidence must be referenced appropriately, using recognised citation styles such as the Harvard system, which reinforces transparency and academic integrity (Pears and Shields, 2019). Objectivity in Academic English Another crucial feature of academic English is its objectivity. Writers are advised to avoid emotional or subjective statements, instead presenting measured suggestions (Wilson, n.d.). For instance, rather than asserting, “Speed cameras are absolutely essential to saving lives,” an academic author might write, “Evidence suggests that speed cameras may contribute to a reduction in traffic-related fatalities, though further research is required.” Such cautious phrasing avoids overstatement and acknowledges uncertainty. Hyland (2005) notes that hedging—the use of cautious language like may, could, or suggests—is a defining feature of academic discourse. Hedging allows scholars to present claims without overstating certainty, reflecting the tentative and evolving nature of knowledge. This contrasts with journalistic writing, which often seeks definitive statements to capture attention. Formal Language Academic writing avoids colloquial expressions and employs formal, complete sentences without abbreviations or contractions (Wilson, n.d.). For example, rather than writing “don’t”, an academic text would use “do not.” Similarly, slang terms like “kids” would be replaced with “children.” Bailey (2018) stresses that academic writing is also characterised by impersonal constructions. Passive voice, while often discouraged in other contexts, can be useful in academic English because it removes personal bias. For instance, “The experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis” focuses on the process rather than the researcher. Specialist Vocabulary The use of specialist vocabulary is another defining trait. Wilson (n.d.) recommends students familiarise themselves with technical terms used in their discipline, observing how they appear in books and journal articles. For example, in medicine, terms like randomised controlled trial or systematic review are standard and must be employed accurately. Misuse of such terminology can undermine credibility. Hyland and Tse (2007) argue that mastering discipline-specific lexis is part of developing academic identity, signalling belonging within a scholarly community. This reflects the idea of “discourse communities” (Swales, 1990), where specialised language marks membership and expertise. Expected Words and Phrases Academic writing also employs signposting language that guides readers through arguments. Common phrases such as “on the one hand”, “in contrast”, and “therefore” provide clear cues about logical relationships between ideas. These markers are not optional but expected by academic readers (Wilson, n.d.). Additionally, academic writing often uses cautious phrases like “it appears that” or “the evidence suggests.” This reflects the epistemological stance of academia, where knowledge is provisional and open to challenge (Hyland, 2005). By adopting such language, students align themselves with academic conventions and demonstrate awareness of scholarly norms. Practical Steps for Students Developing academic English is a process that requires practice and support. Wilson (n.d.) suggests students can improve by attending writing workshops, enrolling in short courses, and engaging actively with academic reading. Lea and Street’s (1998) academic literacies model highlights that learning academic writing is not just a matter of mastering technical skills but involves adapting to new cultural and epistemological practices. For example, a student transitioning from high school to university may initially struggle with avoiding personal opinions or providing sufficient evidence. Over time, however, they can acquire the conventions of academic discourse through feedback and reflection. In summary, academic English is distinguished by its structured presentation of ideas, reliance on evidence, objectivity, formal style, specialist vocabulary, and use of expected signposting language. These features are not merely stylistic but reflect the values of the academic community: precision, rigour, and openness to dialogue. Mastering academic English equips students to participate effectively in scholarly conversations, construct persuasive arguments, and succeed in their studies. Ultimately, as Wilson (n.d.) reminds us, becoming proficient in academic writing takes practice, but it is … Read more

The Ten Bad Listening Habits and Their Implications for Effective Learning

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Listening is one of the most fundamental yet overlooked skills in communication. Scholars argue that while individuals spend approximately 45% of their communication time listening, they often do so ineffectively (Brownell, 2012). Poor listening habits hinder academic learning, workplace collaboration, and interpersonal relationships. Ralph Nichols, often referred to as the “Father of Listening Research”, identified ten bad listening habits that remain highly relevant today (Nichols, 1960; Wolvin & Coakley, 1996). This article explores these habits, analyses their implications, and suggests strategies to cultivate effective listening. 1.0 Calling the Subject Dull One of the most common poor listening habits is dismissing a subject as boring. According to Nichols (1960), ineffective listeners disengage when the topic seems uninteresting, while effective listeners search for useful information. For instance, in a lecture on statistics, a disengaged student may “switch off,” missing crucial content, whereas an engaged student will filter for applications relevant to their research. As Cottrell (2019) notes, successful learners approach all material with the mindset that it may contain valuable insights. 2.0 Criticising the Speaker Another poor habit is focusing on the speaker’s mannerisms rather than the message. Nichols (1960) emphasises that effective listeners quickly move past a speaker’s flaws to focus on the content. Research supports this: listeners who engage in “message-focused listening” rather than “form-focused listening” retain more information (Imhof & Janusik, 2006). For example, dismissing a professor’s lecture because of their monotone voice risks losing critical academic material. Effective listening requires separating style from substance. 3.0 Getting Overstimulated Listeners often overreact emotionally to specific points, which blocks further understanding. Nichols (1960) argued that listeners must withhold evaluation until comprehension is complete. This resonates with active listening theory, which stresses delaying judgement (Rogers & Farson, 1987). For instance, a manager hearing criticism may fixate defensively on one comment, failing to grasp the broader feedback. Training in emotional regulation can help listeners remain open to the entire message. 4.0 Listening Only for Facts Poor listeners tend to focus narrowly on facts rather than main ideas. Nichols (1960) found that such listeners often misinterpret or forget information. Effective listeners extract key themes and use them as anchors for facts (Brownell, 2012). For example, during a legal briefing, a lawyer who listens for the overarching principle rather than isolated statistics is better positioned to recall and apply knowledge in context. 5.0 Trying to Outline Everything Some listeners rigidly attempt to outline every detail, which may not align with the speaker’s delivery style. As Nichols (1960) suggested, good listeners are flexible and adapt note-taking to the presentation. This aligns with modern note-making strategies such as mind mapping (Buzan, 2018), which allow learners to organise information non-linearly, capturing both structure and nuance. 6.0 Faking Attention “Pretend listening” involves appearing attentive without genuine engagement. Nichols (1960) stressed that listening is an active and energy-consuming process. Physiological signs such as increased heart rate and mental focus indicate authentic attention. In workplaces, faked attention undermines trust. Research by Bodie et al. (2015) shows that active listening behaviours, including nodding and paraphrasing, significantly improve communication effectiveness. 7.0 Tolerating Distraction Ineffective listeners allow external or internal distractions to interfere. Nichols (1960) highlighted that good listeners develop the ability to filter distractions. For example, students distracted by mobile phones during lectures exhibit reduced comprehension (Junco, 2012). Practical strategies such as mindfulness techniques and creating a focused environment can significantly reduce susceptibility to distractions. 8.0 Choosing Only What’s Easy Poor listeners avoid difficult material, preferring simple or entertaining content. Nichols (1960) argued that this avoidance weakens intellectual growth. Similarly, deep learning theory emphasises the importance of engaging with challenging texts for critical thinking (Marton & Säljö, 1976). For instance, a medical student who avoids complex anatomy lectures is likely to face difficulties in professional practice. Thus, resilience in listening to demanding content is a hallmark of academic excellence. 9.0 Letting Emotion-Laden Words Interfere Emotionally charged words often cause listeners to “tune out.” Nichols (1960) referred to this as letting symbols override meaning. Research supports this: emotionally provocative language can impair rational processing (Krauss & Chiu, 1998). In political debates, terms like “immigration” or “feminism” may trigger strong reactions. Effective listeners acknowledge their emotions while remaining focused on the substance of the message. 10.0 Wasting the Differential Between Speech and Thought Speed A final poor habit involves misusing the gap between speech speed (100–125 words per minute) and thought speed (400–500 words per minute). Nichols (1960) suggested that good listeners exploit this gap by anticipating, identifying evidence, and summarising. For example, a student in a lecture can use spare mental capacity to summarise key points rather than daydreaming. Research on metacognition supports this technique, showing that self-monitoring enhances comprehension (Flavell, 1979). Overcoming Bad Listening Habits Overcoming these habits requires deliberate practice. Scholars recommend strategies such as: Active listening training, including paraphrasing and summarising (Brownell, 2012). Developing critical thinking to distinguish main ideas from supporting details (Cottrell, 2019). Practising mindfulness to manage distractions (Shapiro et al., 2006). Using structured approaches such as SQ3R for reading and adaptation for listening contexts. Listening is not merely a passive act but a dynamic and effortful process. Nichols’ identification of ten bad listening habits highlights how individuals often undermine their own comprehension and communication. From dismissing content as dull to misusing mental capacity, these habits impede learning and relationships. By cultivating active, flexible, and reflective listening practices, learners and professionals alike can enhance their effectiveness in both academic and real-world settings. Ultimately, effective listening is a learned skill that requires self-awareness, discipline, and the replacement of poor habits with constructive ones. References Bodie, G., Vickery, A., Cannava, K. & Jones, S. (2015). The role of “active listening” in informal helping conversations: Implications for research and practice. International Journal of Listening, 29(3), pp.99–117. Brownell, J. (2012). Listening: Attitudes, Principles, and Skills. 5th ed. Pearson. Buzan, T. (2018). Mind Map Mastery. Watkins Publishing. Cottrell, S. (2019). The Study Skills Handbook. 5th ed. Red Globe Press. Flavell, J. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring. American Psychologist, 34(10), pp.906–911. Imhof, M. & … Read more

Survey, Question, Read, Recall and Review (SQ3R): An Effective Reading Strategy

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Survey, Question, Read, Recall and Review (SQ3R): An Effective Reading Strategy Effective reading and study strategies are fundamental to academic success. One of the most influential methods is the SQ3R system, an acronym for Survey, Question, Read, Recall, and Review. Developed by Francis P. Robinson (1946) in his book Effective Study, the system provides a structured approach to reading comprehension and retention. Its effectiveness lies in transforming passive reading into an active learning process (Cottrell, 2019). This article critically discusses the SQ3R system, explores its application in different learning contexts, and analyses its relevance in the digital learning environment. Origins and Importance of SQ3R The SQ3R method was designed during the Second World War to help army personnel study efficiently (Robinson, 1946). Since then, it has become a staple in study skills programmes worldwide, emphasising critical thinking and information retention. According to Weinstein and Mayer (1986), learning strategies such as SQ3R enhance cognitive engagement and enable learners to construct meaningful connections between new knowledge and prior understanding. In an era of information overload, SQ3R offers a systematic framework for processing large amounts of material, particularly useful in higher education where students must engage with complex academic texts (Nist & Simpson, 2000). Step 1: Survey The first stage, Survey, involves scanning the material to gain an overview. This includes reading titles, subheadings, introductions, summaries, and visual aids (SQ3R document; Cottrell, 2019). The purpose is to establish a mental map of the text’s structure, enabling learners to set goals and expectations. For example, when approaching a chapter in a psychology textbook, a student may skim the headings on cognitive development and glance at figures or diagrams. This primes the mind to expect information about stages of development, key theorists, and empirical studies. Research by Rayner et al. (2012) demonstrates that previewing texts increases comprehension by providing a framework for active reading. Step 2: Question In the Question stage, learners transform headings and subheadings into questions. This step encourages active engagement with the material. Instead of passively reading, the student anticipates answers, fostering curiosity and deeper understanding (Nist & Holschuh, 2012). For instance, a heading such as “Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development” may lead to questions such as: What are Piaget’s stages? or How do they explain child learning?. This aligns with constructivist learning theory, which suggests that learning occurs when individuals actively construct knowledge (Bruner, 1961). Step 3: Read The Read stage involves carefully engaging with the text to answer the formulated questions. Reading becomes purposeful and focused, reducing distractions and improving retention. Empirical studies support this approach. McNamara (2009) found that students using structured reading strategies like SQ3R demonstrated improved comprehension, particularly when dealing with challenging texts. By continuously checking whether their questions are answered, learners also develop critical literacy skills, essential in academic research. Step 4: Recall Once a section is read, the Recall stage requires learners to summarise the main points from memory. This reinforces active retrieval, a process that has been shown to strengthen memory consolidation (Roediger & Butler, 2011). For example, after reading about Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development, a student may close the book and attempt to explain the concept in their own words. This mirrors the testing effect, where retrieving knowledge enhances long-term retention (Karpicke & Blunt, 2011). Step 5: Review Finally, Review involves revisiting questions, notes, and summaries to ensure understanding is consolidated. This step fosters distributed practice, a highly effective learning strategy (Cepeda et al., 2006). Reviewing not only improves memory but also refines organisational skills, as learners restructure notes and highlight connections across chapters. As the SQ3R document emphasises, the Review phase ensures that “the information you gain from reading is important” rather than superficial (SQ3R document). In practice, this might mean revisiting a week’s lecture readings before an exam, thereby reinforcing knowledge systematically. Applications in Academic and Professional Settings The SQ3R system is widely used in academic contexts, from secondary education to postgraduate research. For instance, medical students often face extensive reading lists; applying SQ3R helps them prioritise key learning outcomes, particularly when studying clinical case studies (Brown et al., 2014). In professional environments, SQ3R is equally valuable. Business leaders analysing industry reports can apply the method to extract strategic insights efficiently. Similarly, in law, where practitioners must interpret dense legal texts, SQ3R provides a structured approach to identifying relevant arguments and precedents (Cottrell, 2019). Critiques and Limitations Despite its strengths, SQ3R is not without criticism. Some researchers argue it is time-consuming, making it less appealing in fast-paced environments (Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995). Additionally, learners with low motivation may struggle to sustain the questioning and recalling processes. Furthermore, in digital learning environments, where texts are hyperlinked and non-linear, SQ3R may require adaptation. However, studies suggest that combining SQ3R with digital annotation tools enhances its relevance (Mangen et al., 2013). SQ3R in the Digital Age The rise of e-learning and digital platforms has changed reading behaviours. Modern students often skim articles online rather than engage in deep reading. Applying SQ3R in digital contexts means using tools such as highlighting software, online flashcards, and summarisation apps to support each stage. For example, surveying may involve scrolling through abstracts and graphical abstracts, while recall may be enhanced using apps like Quizlet. As Carr (2010) notes in The Shallows, digital reading risks reducing comprehension. Therefore, structured methods like SQ3R are increasingly important in maintaining deep reading practices in an era of distraction. The SQ3R study system remains one of the most effective strategies for reading comprehension, retention, and academic success. By guiding learners through surveying, questioning, reading, recalling, and reviewing, it transforms passive reading into active learning. While challenges exist, particularly in adapting to digital platforms, the method’s core principles remain relevant. Ultimately, SQ3R embodies the philosophy that learning requires active effort and reflection. Whether applied by students, professionals, or lifelong learners, it continues to be a cornerstone of effective study skills in the 21st century. References Bruner, J. (1961). The Act of Discovery. Harvard University Press. Brown, C., Roediger, H. & McDaniel, M. … Read more

Sentence Building: An Essential Component of Academic Success in Higher Education

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Sentence building is one of the fundamental skills in academic writing. A well-constructed sentence enhances clarity, coherence, and precision, while poorly constructed sentences can obscure meaning and weaken arguments. In higher education, students are expected to demonstrate mastery in constructing sentences that convey complex ideas with accuracy (Cottrell, 2013). Developing sentence-building skills requires an understanding of grammar, syntax, vocabulary, sentence variety, and cohesion. It also involves critical thinking to ensure that meaning is expressed clearly and effectively in academic contexts (Moon, 2004). This article explores the importance of sentence building, common challenges, strategies for improvement, and practical examples from research and academic writing practice. 1.0 Importance of Sentence Building in Academic Writing Sentences are the basic units of thought in written communication. In university assignments, they serve as vehicles for arguments, evidence, and analysis. As Rahman (2025) notes, many undergraduate students struggle with sentence construction errors, including incorrect verb usage, subject–verb disagreement, and misplaced modifiers. Such errors undermine the credibility of academic writing. Moreover, Lahoual and Hdouch (2025) emphasise that complex sentence construction is associated with higher levels of writing proficiency. For example, a student who writes: “The theory is important. It is used in business.” demonstrates simplicity but lacks sophistication. Whereas: “The importance of this theory lies in its application across diverse business contexts, particularly in shaping strategic decision-making,” shows complexity and academic maturity. 2.0 Challenges in Sentence Building Grammatical Errors Research by Rahman (2025) in Bangladesh reveals that engineering students frequently commit errors in verb forms, prepositions, and sentence structure, suggesting a lack of foundational grammar knowledge. Similarly, Chuanpipatpong (2025) found that Thai EFL students often struggled with syntax and word order, impacting the quality of their argumentative essays. Overuse of Simple Sentences According to Maghfirah et al. (2025), many learners over-rely on simple sentences, leading to repetitive and monotonous writing. Academic writing often demands a balance of simple, compound, and complex structures to maintain reader engagement and convey nuanced meaning. Influence of First Language (L1) Rafieyan (2025) observed that students’ first language strongly influences sentence formation in a second language (L2). For instance, learners may transfer structures directly from their native language, resulting in awkward or ungrammatical constructions in English. 3.0 Strategies for Effective Sentence Building Mastery of Grammar and Syntax Grammar is the foundation of sentence building. As Nuryani and Rohmat (2025) note, words in sentences influence one another, and understanding grammatical relationships ensures accuracy. For example, subject–verb agreement (“The students are working” vs “The students is working”) is essential to maintain precision. Sentence Variety Effective academic writing requires varying sentence types: Simple sentences convey direct information. Compound sentences join related ideas: “The results were significant, and they confirmed the hypothesis.” Complex sentences introduce depth: “Although the results were significant, further research is needed to confirm the hypothesis.” By combining sentence types, writers improve the rhythm and readability of their work (Williams, 2025). Use of Transition Words and Cohesion Transitions such as however, therefore, in contrast, and furthermore link ideas, ensuring cohesion. Sukmawati (2025) found that students using digital writing assistants such as ChatGPT or Grammarly improved cohesion by generating clearer sentence structures and logical connectors. Feedback and Peer Review Lahoual and Hdouch (2025) highlight the value of peer feedback in improving complex sentence construction. When students review one another’s work, they learn alternative ways of phrasing and structuring ideas, enhancing their own writing. 4.0 Role of Technology in Sentence Building Digital tools have transformed how students build sentences. According to Anwar et al. (2025), applications such as Grammarly refine sentence accuracy, suggest alternatives, and encourage variety. Similarly, Maghfirah et al. (2025) found that QuillBot helps students balance precision and personal voice by rephrasing sentences while preserving meaning. However, as Pedersen (2025) warns, over-reliance on AI can reduce students’ ability to think critically about sentence construction. Tools should be seen as support systems, not replacements for independent skills. 5.0 Practical Applications in Higher Education Academic Essays In essays, sentence building reflects the ability to construct arguments logically. For example, instead of writing: “The study is about climate change. It is dangerous.” a stronger version would be: “This study critically examines climate change as a global threat, highlighting its profound environmental, economic, and social implications.” Reports and Dissertations Dissertation writing often requires precision in presenting data. Pourgholamali (2025) argues that maintaining sentence order and semantic fidelity is vital in research summaries, especially in fields such as medicine or engineering, where misrepresentation can distort findings. Language Learning Research by Reducto and Idul (2025) shows that individualised feedback and technology-enhanced instruction improve students’ sentence construction in EFL contexts, helping them transition from simple to more sophisticated academic writing. 6.0 Case Studies Morocco: Lahoual and Hdouch (2025) found that EFL students improved their use of complex sentences through structured peer feedback, which encouraged active reflection on syntax. Bangladesh: Rahman (2025) showed that targeted grammar teaching reduced common errors in undergraduate engineering students’ academic writing. Indonesia: Sukmawati (2025) demonstrated that students using ChatGPT as a writing assistant produced more coherent and structurally varied assignments, improving clarity. These case studies underline that effective sentence building combines traditional grammar instruction, practice, and digital innovation. 7.0 Developing Critical Thinking through Sentence Building Sentence construction is not just about grammar but also about critical thinking. Martinez (2025) points out that higher-order thinking is reflected in how sentences are structured to present nuanced arguments. For example: Descriptive: “The data shows a decline in sales.” Critical: “While the data indicates a decline in sales, this trend may reflect seasonal variation rather than long-term market instability.” Here, sentence building demonstrates the writer’s ability to interpret, evaluate, and synthesise information. Sentence building is an essential component of academic success in higher education. It requires mastery of grammar, syntax, sentence variety, and cohesion, supported by feedback and responsible use of technology. Research confirms that students who develop these skills produce more sophisticated, persuasive, and academically credible writing. Ultimately, effective sentence building is not just about forming grammatically correct statements but about crafting sentences that convey critical thought, originality, and … Read more

English for Academic Purposes (EAP): Concepts, Practices, and Challenges

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English for Academic Purposes (EAP) has developed as a significant field within applied linguistics and English language teaching. It is primarily concerned with preparing learners to use English effectively in academic contexts such as universities, research environments, and professional scholarly communication. EAP differs from General English in that it emphasises academic discourse, disciplinary-specific communication, and the development of critical literacy skills required for higher education. As globalisation and internationalisation of education have increased, EAP has become essential for students navigating English-medium institutions worldwide (Hyland, 2006). This article explores the concepts, practices, and challenges of EAP, highlighting key pedagogical frameworks, contemporary debates, and practical examples, supported by scholarly literature and empirical research. 1.0 Defining English for Academic Purposes EAP is defined as the branch of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) that focuses on the language, skills, and practices necessary for academic study and scholarly communication (Jordan, 1997). While ESP caters to professional or vocational fields (e.g., English for Medical Purposes, English for Business), EAP specifically targets learners engaged in academic study. According to Hyland and Hamp-Lyons (2002), EAP encompasses not just language structures but also the academic literacies students require to participate effectively in higher education. A key feature of EAP is its needs-based orientation. Unlike general English courses, EAP begins with a detailed needs analysis to identify the specific linguistic and cognitive requirements of learners within their disciplines (Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998). For example, science students may need to focus on reading research articles and writing laboratory reports, whereas humanities students may require training in essay writing and critical analysis. 2.0 Pedagogical Approaches in EAP 2.1 Skills-based Approach The skills-based approach emphasises developing the four core skills—reading, writing, listening, and speaking—for academic contexts. This includes critical reading, note-taking, academic writing, and seminar participation (Minarsih, Tyas & Herlina, 2025). 2.2 Genre-based Approach The genre approach, heavily influenced by systemic functional linguistics, examines the textual and rhetorical structures of academic discourse. Hyland (2004) argues that genre pedagogy empowers learners by exposing them to authentic models of academic texts, such as dissertations, journal articles, and conference abstracts. 2.3 Corpus-based Approach Corpus linguistics has enabled teachers to use large databases of academic texts to analyse recurrent patterns in academic writing. For instance, research shows that signalling nouns, hedging, and nominalisation are key features of dissertation writing (Yang, 2025). 2.4 Online and Blended Learning The rise of digital education has transformed EAP delivery. Bao (2025) highlights that EAP MOOCs and online writing programmes have expanded access, though challenges remain in maintaining engagement and providing individualised feedback. 3.0 Critical Literacy and EAP EAP is not limited to teaching grammar or vocabulary but emphasises critical literacy—the ability to question sources, evaluate arguments, and construct academic knowledge (Nguyen & Trinh, 2025). Critical reading strategies are central to EAP courses, equipping students to navigate dense, discipline-specific materials. For example, a student in engineering must critically interpret research data, while a literature student may analyse theoretical frameworks. Wong (2025) provides a critical EAP perspective, noting that EAP is inherently linked to issues of identity, power, and resistance. By teaching academic English, institutions may implicitly promote certain cultural or ideological values, raising concerns about linguistic imperialism. Thus, educators must balance language training with respect for students’ linguistic and cultural backgrounds. 4.0 The Role of EAP Educators EAP practitioners occupy a unique position within universities. They are often seen as support staff rather than disciplinary experts, which may undermine their professional identity. Taylorson, Mavor and Miles (2025) argue that applying a psychological lens reveals the identity challenges faced by EAP educators, who negotiate between language pedagogy and disciplinary authority. Professional development and collaboration with subject specialists can strengthen EAP provision. For example, joint modules between EAP lecturers and faculty members in engineering or business can provide students with both linguistic scaffolding and disciplinary knowledge. 5.0 EAP Across Disciplines A major challenge in EAP is addressing disciplinary variation. Research shows that science textbooks employ different grammatical and lexical structures compared to humanities materials (Yang, Lan & Huang, 2025). Similarly, English for Medical Purposes requires specialised vocabulary, diagnostic communication skills, and familiarity with medical discourse (Aarvidurai, Anandhan & Thiyagarajan, 2025). Therefore, effective EAP must be discipline-sensitive, recognising that academic communication is not homogeneous but shaped by the epistemological norms of different fields. 6.0 Technological Integration in EAP The integration of digital tools has reshaped EAP teaching. Leva et al. (2025) note that translation students increasingly rely on university-provided tools for academic tasks. Similarly, Shalhoub and Kunt (2025) highlight that online distance learning (ODL) during COVID-19 accelerated the adoption of platforms such as Moodle and Zoom for EAP instruction. While these tools increase accessibility, they also pose challenges in terms of digital literacy and the risk of over-reliance on AI-based translation or writing tools, which may undermine the development of independent academic skills. 7.0 Challenges in EAP 7.1 Cultural Diversity – Students from varied linguistic and cultural backgrounds face different barriers to academic integration. 7.2 Assessment – Measuring EAP outcomes remains complex. Traditional exams may not capture skills such as critical thinking or collaborative learning. 7.3 AI and Academic Integrity – With tools like ChatGPT being widely used, concerns have arisen regarding plagiarism and authenticity of student work (Prykhodchenko et al., 2025). 7.4 Resource Inequality – Access to high-quality EAP instruction is uneven globally, disadvantaging students in less-resourced institutions. EAP plays a vital role in supporting students’ academic success by equipping them with the necessary linguistic, cognitive, and critical skills to thrive in higher education. Its needs-based, discipline-sensitive, and literacy-oriented approaches ensure that it remains dynamic and adaptable to global academic trends. However, challenges such as professional recognition, digital integration, and academic integrity require continuous attention. Ultimately, EAP is not merely about mastering English; it is about gaining access to academic communities of practice, shaping professional identities, and engaging critically with knowledge production in a globalised world. References Aarvidurai, E., Anandhan, H., & Thiyagarajan, T.K. (2025). Education as panacea: Paradigm shift in assessing the English for medical purposes needs and learning preferences of … Read more

Business Planning and Strategy: Transforming Opportunities into Profitable Ventures

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An effective business planning and strategy is central to converting promising opportunities into profitable ventures. It serves as a structured document that outlines a company’s vision, mission, objectives, competitive positioning, operations, and financial forecasts (Barringer & Ireland, 2016). However, business planning goes beyond documentation. It is deeply rooted in strategic management, where firms align their internal resources with external market opportunities (Hitt et al., 2008). In today’s fast-paced and digitally transformed environment, methods such as the lean start-up approach (Ries, 2011) and the integration of analytics (Ezeife et al., 2024) play a crucial role in ensuring that plans are adaptable, evidence-based, and profit-oriented. This article explores how business planning and strategy enable organisations to transform opportunities into sustainable profits, supported by theoretical frameworks, practical examples, and current research. 1.0 The Role of Business Planning in Opportunity Transformation A business plan functions as both a roadmap and a communication tool. It clarifies strategic direction, reduces uncertainty, and attracts investors, lenders, and partners (Barringer & Ireland, 2016). According to Borcosi (2025), structured planning is associated with higher levels of employee training, efficiency, and operational profitability. Furthermore, Rezvani et al. (2025) emphasise that planning facilitates entrepreneurial entry by systematically identifying opportunities and mitigating risks. For example, Dropbox successfully validated its idea by releasing a demo video before developing the full product (Ries, 2011). This demonstrates how structured yet flexible planning can reduce upfront costs while gauging market demand. 2.0 Strategic Management as a Profitability Driver Strategic management ensures that firms deploy resources to capture opportunities effectively. Hitt et al. (2008) argue that long-term profitability depends on the alignment of resources, competitive advantage, and environmental scanning. In line with this, Ezeife et al. (2024) propose integrating predictive analytics into strategic decision-making, which boosts profitability and enhances business longevity. Similarly, Jadhav et al. (2025) highlight the emergence of green and sustainable business models, where strategic planning incorporates environmental and social value creation alongside profit objectives. Firms that integrate sustainability into planning, such as Unilever’s Sustainable Living Plan, gain both competitive advantage and customer loyalty. 3.0 The Lean Start-up and Iterative Planning The lean start-up methodology challenges the traditional approach of producing detailed long-term plans upfront. Ries (2011) stresses that businesses should experiment, measure, and learn through minimum viable products (MVPs). This iterative process enables firms to validate assumptions early and pivot when necessary. Khan et al. (2025) demonstrate how firms use machine learning and optimisation models to cut costs and increase profitability in logistics. By combining lean principles with advanced analytics, businesses achieve agility while maximising financial outcomes. 4.0 Digital Transformation and Data-Driven Strategy Digitalisation has fundamentally transformed business planning and execution. According to Vanani et al. (2024), digital transformation technologies—including AI, big data, and advanced analytics—improve decision-making, reduce risks, and enhance profitability. Borcosi (2025) further observes that digital management practices adopted by SMEs allow them to scale operations globally. Human Resource (HR) practices are also key. Ojakorotu (2025) notes that HR analytics informs workforce strategies, aligning talent management with profitability objectives. This data-driven alignment ensures that the human capital dimension supports broader strategic goals. 5.0 Financial Planning and Risk Management Effective planning also requires financial forecasting and risk analysis. According to Mansour and Vadell (2025), green finance and energy transition frameworks demonstrate how integrating financial planning with sustainable strategies reduces risks while ensuring long-term viability. In hospitality, Golja et al. (2024) show how investment models in Croatian hotels emphasise detailed planning to balance customer experience with profitability metrics. Similarly, Shelby (2025) stresses how ownership transitions planned under employee ownership models can sustain profitability while building long-term resilience. 6.0 Case Studies in Strategic Planning Success Several industries provide examples of how planning and strategy transform opportunities: Tourism and Hospitality: Zhang et al. (2025) analyse immigrant entrepreneurs in Tasmania who used detailed market analysis and business planning to create viable ventures in tourism despite initial barriers. Food and Beverage: Burbar et al. (2025) illustrate how Hamburger Restaurants in Palestine leveraged entrepreneurial planning to thrive in challenging environments. Technology Start-ups: Dropbox’s MVP strategy (Ries, 2011) remains a benchmark for cost-effective opportunity validation. Sustainable Enterprises: Jadhav et al. (2025) highlight green models where sustainability integration enhances long-term competitiveness. These examples show that regardless of industry, the core elements of planning, adaptability, and strategic alignment underpin success. 7.0 Challenges in Transforming Opportunities into Profitable Ventures Despite its advantages, business planning faces challenges: Uncertainty in dynamic markets: Predicting customer preferences in rapidly evolving industries like technology remains difficult (Vanani et al., 2024). Overplanning and rigidity: Excessive focus on detailed long-term projections may hinder responsiveness (Ries, 2011). Digital adoption barriers: SMEs often struggle to access resources for advanced digital transformation (Borcosi, 2025). Sustainability trade-offs: Balancing short-term profit with long-term environmental goals is complex (Mansour & Vadell, 2025). Addressing these challenges requires adaptive strategy frameworks, continuous learning, and flexible financing. Business planning and strategy remain indispensable tools for converting opportunities into profitable ventures. They combine vision setting, strategic resource allocation, financial forecasting, and digital adoption with lean experimentation and sustainability considerations. Evidence from multiple industries confirms that structured yet adaptive planning enhances profitability, resilience, and long-term growth. As businesses face increasing uncertainty, adopting data-driven, iterative, and sustainability-focused approaches will be crucial for success in transforming opportunities into lasting profitability. References Barringer, B. R. & Ireland, R. D. (2016). Entrepreneurship: Successfully Launching New Ventures. 5th ed. Harlow: Pearson. Borcosi, B. C. (2025). The trend in management–digital management and how it is implemented by SMEs. Annals – Economy Series, University of Targu Jiu. Available at: https://www.utgjiu.ro/revista/ec/pdf/2025-01/12_Borcosi.pdf. Burbar, M. Y., Jaber, R. Y. & Shkukani, S. J. (2025). Entrepreneurship, start-ups, and business success: Hunger’s Hamburger Restaurant in Palestine. Springer. Ezeife, E., Eyeregba, M. E. & Mokogwu, C. (2024). Integrating predictive analytics into strategic decision-making. World Journal of Management. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/386336187. Golja, T., Kukurin, Ž. & Prevolšek, D. (2024). Razvojne strategije u hotelijerstvu. CroRIS. Available at: https://www.croris.hr/crosbi/publikacija/resolve/croris/857999. Hitt, M. A., Ireland, R. D. & Hoskisson, R. E. (2008). Strategic Management: Competitiveness and Globalisation. 8th ed. Mason, OH: South-Western. Jadhav, H. L., Pandey, P. P. & … Read more

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