Mohammad T Islam (BSc, MBA, MEd)

The McDonald’s franchising model is often cited as a hallmark example of successful international franchising. Since opening its first franchise in 1955, McDonald’s has grown into the largest and most recognisable fast-food franchise globally, with over 38,000 restaurants in more than 100 countries (McDonald’s Corporation, 2025). This case study explores the strategic, operational, and globalisation factors behind McDonald’s franchising success, critically analysing key components such as the franchise structure, standardisation vs localisation, franchisee support, and the challenges involved. Insights are drawn from textbooks, academic journals, and reputable business publications, using the Harvard referencing style. 1.0 Theoretical Framework: Franchising in Business Models Franchising is a hybrid business model combining elements of centralised corporate control with decentralised ownership. As defined by Hoffman and Preble (2004), franchising allows a franchisor to grant the rights to a franchisee to operate under its brand and business model, in exchange for fees and ongoing royalties. This approach enables rapid scaling, risk-sharing, and brand consistency. According to Lashley, C. & Morrison, A. (2000), franchising in the hospitality industry is particularly suitable for companies like McDonald’s, which rely on standardised operations, global brand equity, and a repeatable customer experience. It allows franchisors to expand internationally with minimal capital investment while enabling local entrepreneurs to benefit from established brand systems. 2.0 McDonald’s Franchising Structure McDonald’s operates a multi-format franchising system, with ownership divided among: Franchisees (approx. 93%), Company-operated restaurants, and Developmental licensees in international markets (McDonald’s Corporation, 2025). The standard franchise agreement includes a 20-year term with a requirement for adherence to strict operational protocols, site approval by McDonald’s, and payment of various fees including: Initial franchise fee (~$45,000 USD), Monthly service fee (~4% of sales), and Rent based on sales and location (Kolesnikov, 2025). This structure ensures that McDonald’s retains strategic control over brand consistency, site development, and operational procedures while leveraging local expertise (Rozengard, 2025). 3.0 Global Expansion Strategy McDonald’s international franchising success is underpinned by its ability to adapt its model to diverse cultural, legal, and economic environments. As highlighted by Pischnikova (2025), McDonald’s adapts its menu to local tastes – for instance, removing beef in India or offering shrimp burgers in Japan. This “glocalisation” strategy balances global brand identity with local relevance, a critical success factor in international markets. An example of this approach is seen in McDonald’s entry into China, where partnerships with local conglomerates like CITIC Group allowed the brand to navigate complex regulations and local preferences (Singh, Tyagi & Sharma, 2025). 4.0 Franchisee Selection and Support A critical component of McDonald’s franchising success lies in its rigorous franchisee selection process. Prospective franchisees are assessed not only for financial capability but also for operational experience, leadership skills, and alignment with McDonald’s values (Orjević, 2025). Furthermore, McDonald’s offers extensive training through Hamburger University, a corporate institution that provides over 5,000 graduates annually with training in business operations, customer service, and leadership (Ibraeva, 2025). The company also provides ongoing support in areas such as: Real estate selection, Supply chain management, and Marketing and advertising (Tomisová, 2025). 5.0 Challenges and Criticisms Despite its success, McDonald’s franchising model faces several challenges: 5.1 Labour and Wage Issues Franchisees are often accused of underpaying workers or resisting minimum wage increases. While McDonald’s claims franchisees are independent employers, public backlash affects the brand image (El Khoury, 2025). 5.2 Profit Margins and Costs Franchisees bear high upfront costs and ongoing royalties, which can erode profitability. As Kolesnikov (2025) notes, rent and equipment costs paid to McDonald’s often mean slim operating margins for franchisees. 5.3 Standardisation vs Autonomy Maintaining rigid operational control may stifle local innovation. In some countries, franchisees have pushed back against inflexible corporate mandates (Rozengard, 2025). 6.0 The Role of Technology and Marketing Recent research by Kaur, Kim, and Gill (2025) demonstrates that social media proficiency among franchisees significantly enhances customer engagement and sales performance. McDonald’s has also embraced AI-driven order systems, mobile apps, and digital kiosks, streamlining operations and enhancing the customer experience (Singh et al., 2025). Moreover, McDonald’s standardised global advertising campaigns, such as “I’m Lovin’ It”, combined with local promotions, ensure brand recognition and resonance across markets. 7.0 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) CSR has become increasingly vital in McDonald’s franchise operations. According to Cakti and Mulawarman (2025), corporate legitimacy, especially in environmental and social practices, influences public perceptions of franchisee outlets. Initiatives like reducing plastic use, sustainable sourcing, and youth employment programmes help build goodwill, especially in environmentally sensitive markets. 8.0 Case Example: McDonald’s Indonesia The Indonesian market, operated by PT Rekso Nasional Food, exemplifies the brand’s localisation strategy. Azzahra and Zefriyenni (2025) highlight how McDonald’s Indonesia adapted pricing and promotions to appeal to price-sensitive consumers, introduced rice-based meals, and engaged in Ramadan-specific campaigns. These strategies have led to sustained growth despite competition from local and global rivals. The franchising of McDonald’s represents a masterclass in scalable, global business strategy. Its success is rooted in: A robust franchise structure, Effective local adaptation strategies, Comprehensive training and support systems, and A strong commitment to brand management and innovation. However, challenges related to labour practices, cost pressures, and franchisee autonomy suggest that continued success will require adaptive governance and ethical oversight. As global market dynamics evolve, McDonald’s must remain vigilant in balancing control with flexibility, ensuring that its franchising model remains both profitable and socially responsible. References Azzahra, A. & Zefriyenni, Z. (2025). Pricing and Promotion Analysis of Purchase Decisions at McDonald’s. Eduvest Journal of Universal Education. http://eduvest.greenvest.co.id. Cakti, B.A. & Mulawarman, A.D. (2025). Legitimacy of McDonald’s CSR Disclosure. International Journal of Research on Finance and Business. https://ijrfb.com. Hoffman, R.C. & Preble, J.F. (2004). Global franchising: Current status and future challenges. Journal of Services Marketing, 18(2), 101-113. Ibraeva, N. (2025). Bachelor Thesis on McDonald’s Franchise Training. Theses.cz. Kaur, P., Kim, S.K. & Gill, P. (2025). When Does Social Media Experience Improve Franchisee Performance?. Journal of Retailing, Elsevier. Kolesnikov, N. (2025). Peculiarities of Running the Business of the Most Profitable Fast-Food Chain. Belarusian State Economic University. http://edoc.bseu.by. McDonald’s Corporation. (2025). Franchise Information & Global Facts. https://corporate.mcdonalds.com. Orjević, I. … Read more

Airbnb, established in 2008 in San Francisco, has transformed the global hospitality industry by pioneering the sharing economy model in accommodation. The company’s platform allows homeowners to rent their properties to travellers seeking affordable and authentic lodging experiences. Over the years, Airbnb has evolved into a multi-billion-dollar enterprise, hosting over four million listings across more than 190 countries (Meleo, Romolini & De Marco, 2016). The company’s success stems from its ability to leverage digital platforms, trust-based exchange, and community participation. However, with increasing competition, regulatory scrutiny, and post-pandemic market changes, Airbnb’s future growth depends on its strategic agility. This case study applies the TOWS analysis, an extension of the traditional SWOT matrix, to assess Airbnb’s strategic positioning and provide actionable strategies for sustainable competitiveness. TOWS analysis focuses on aligning internal factors (strengths and weaknesses) with external opportunities and threats (Weihrich, 1982), offering a structured framework for decision-making in a dynamic environment. 2.0 SWOT Overview Before delving into the TOWS matrix, it is crucial to summarise Airbnb’s SWOT findings. Strengths Strong global brand recognition and trust-based community model (Veverková, 2021). Cost-efficient business model — Airbnb owns no physical assets but facilitates high-value transactions. Advanced digital infrastructure and user-friendly platform. Diverse portfolio including Airbnb Experiences and Airbnb Luxe. Weaknesses Regulatory challenges and inconsistent global compliance (Polisetty & Kurian, 2021). Dependence on hosts leading to quality inconsistencies. Customer safety and data security concerns. Limited customer service responsiveness. Opportunities Growing demand for authentic and sustainable tourism (Rathnayake et al., 2024). Technological innovations such as AI-based personalisation and blockchain for secure transactions. Expansion into emerging markets with high tourism potential. Corporate travel market diversification post-pandemic (Cankül, Cankül & Aktepe, 2024). Threats Rising competition from Booking.com, Expedia, and Vrbo. Regulatory tightening in urban centres like Paris and New York. Economic downturns affecting travel behaviour. Community backlash due to local housing affordability issues (Roma, Panniello & Nigro, 2019). 3.0 TOWS Matrix for Airbnb The TOWS matrix enables the identification of four strategic combinations: SO (Strength–Opportunity), WO (Weakness–Opportunity), ST (Strength–Threat), and WT (Weakness–Threat) strategies. Internal/External Factors Opportunities (O) Threats (T) Strengths (S) SO Strategies: Leverage brand equity and technology to expand into sustainable tourism. ST Strategies: Use data analytics and innovation to mitigate competitive and regulatory threats. Weaknesses (W) WO Strategies: Invest in host quality training and compliance systems to capitalise on emerging markets. WT Strategies: Develop robust risk management systems to safeguard against regulatory and market volatility. 4.0 Strategic Analysis 4.1. SO Strategies – Maximising Strengths and Opportunities Strategy 1: Sustainable Tourism Integration Airbnb can utilise its brand credibility and global reach to position itself as a leader in eco-friendly tourism. Rathnayake et al. (2024) emphasise that sustainability-driven travel preferences are reshaping the hospitality landscape. Airbnb’s “Live Anywhere on Airbnb” initiative exemplifies this by encouraging long-term stays and remote work, aligning with environmentally conscious consumption. Strategy 2: Technological Innovation Leveraging its robust data analytics and AI capabilities, Airbnb can develop predictive pricing tools and personalised user experiences (Navickas, Petroke & Baciuliene, 2021). The company’s use of machine learning algorithms to match guests and hosts enhances operational efficiency and customer satisfaction. Further, blockchain-based identity verification could strengthen trust and transparency, a cornerstone of the sharing economy (Meleo et al., 2016). Example: Airbnb’s “Smart Pricing” tool, which automatically adjusts rates based on market demand, demonstrates the value of AI-driven adaptability. 4.2. WO Strategies – Overcoming Weaknesses through Opportunities Strategy 3: Strengthening Host Standards through Digital Training Inconsistent service quality remains a major challenge. Airbnb can introduce digital certification programmes for hosts, improving customer experience consistency. According to Evans (2024), service quality standardisation is critical for brand longevity in the hospitality sector. Integrating training modules on sustainability, safety, and cultural sensitivity could appeal to modern travellers seeking responsible tourism. Strategy 4: Emerging Market Expansion Airbnb should strategically target emerging economies such as India, Vietnam, and Brazil, where demand for low-cost lodging is growing (Le, 2020). Local partnerships with tourism boards could enhance regulatory compliance and promote inclusive growth. Example: In India, Airbnb’s partnership with the Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) empowers women hosts, aligning business growth with social sustainability. 4.3. ST Strategies – Using Strengths to Mitigate Threats Strategy 5: Regulatory Engagement and Advocacy Airbnb’s global reputation can be harnessed to build partnerships with governments and urban planners to co-create fair housing policies. Roma et al. (2019) argue that a proactive stance on regulation can turn potential threats into collaboration opportunities. Airbnb’s City Portal initiative demonstrates this by providing data insights to city authorities for sustainable tourism management. Strategy 6: Differentiation through Experience-Based Offerings With increasing competition, Airbnb can enhance its “Airbnb Experiences” product line — offering localised activities such as cooking classes, guided tours, and cultural exchanges. Such differentiation, as Polisetty & Kurian (2021) suggest, capitalises on Airbnb’s community-based identity and defends against commoditisation by competitors. 4.4. WT Strategies – Minimising Weaknesses and Avoiding Threats Strategy 7: Enhancing Risk Management and Crisis Preparedness The COVID-19 pandemic exposed vulnerabilities in Airbnb’s operational resilience. Developing a comprehensive crisis management framework — including host insurance schemes and flexible booking policies — is vital. Rathnayake et al. (2024) note that adaptability to external shocks enhances organisational sustainability in volatile markets. Strategy 8: Improving Data Security and Customer Trust Given the rise in cybersecurity threats, Airbnb must invest in advanced encryption technologies and GDPR-compliant practices. According to Cankül et al. (2024), customer trust is a critical determinant of digital service continuity in the hospitality sector. 5.0 Discussion Airbnb’s strategic trajectory demonstrates its ability to adapt business models to emerging market conditions. The TOWS framework highlights how leveraging core competencies — brand recognition, data intelligence, and global reach — can address both regulatory and competitive pressures. Moreover, aligning Airbnb’s social mission with sustainable tourism can strengthen its reputation and foster long-term stakeholder loyalty. However, the ethical and social implications of Airbnb’s expansion, including urban gentrification and housing affordability, must be addressed through responsible innovation and policy collaboration (Ünal & Demirkol, 2022). The integration of corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives, such as supporting local hosts and … Read more

Tesla, Inc., founded in 2003 by Elon Musk, has revolutionised the automotive and energy sectors through its focus on sustainable innovation, electric mobility, and renewable energy solutions (Haojie & Tleukhanovna, 2024). The firm’s strategic approach is deeply rooted in innovation-led differentiation, supported by advanced battery technology, autonomous driving capabilities, and eco-centric brand positioning. Conducting a SWOT analysis—which assesses Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats—provides valuable insight into Tesla’s internal and external strategic environment (Johnson, Scholes & Whittington, 2017). 1.0 Strengths 1.1 Technological Innovation and R&D Capability Tesla’s foremost strength lies in its commitment to technological innovation. With annual R&D spending exceeding $3 billion (Statista, 2025), the company leads in battery efficiency, autonomous driving, and AI integration (Haojie & Tleukhanovna, 2024). The Tesla Autopilot system utilises machine learning and sensor fusion, creating a key competitive differentiator (Grant, 2019). According to Barney (1991), competitive advantage stems from valuable, rare, inimitable, and non-substitutable resources (VRIN). Tesla’s proprietary technologies, including its 4680 battery cells and Gigafactory production models, meet these criteria, underscoring its strategic strength. 1.2 Strong Brand Equity Tesla has cultivated a premium and futuristic brand image, often synonymous with innovation and environmental consciousness. The company’s brand equity is reinforced by its charismatic CEO, Elon Musk, whose personal brand enhances investor confidence and consumer appeal (Kotler & Keller, 2016). Tesla’s brand value is estimated at over $58 billion, placing it among the top ten global automotive brands (Interbrand, 2024). 1.3 Vertical Integration and Operational Efficiency Tesla’s vertical integration—spanning battery production, software design, and direct sales—enables tighter quality control and cost efficiencies. The Gigafactories in Nevada, Shanghai, Berlin, and Texas enhance global scalability and reduce supply chain vulnerabilities (Musk, 2023). Unlike traditional automakers relying on third-party suppliers, Tesla’s integration facilitates faster innovation cycles and margin control (Hill, Jones & Schilling, 2014). 2.0 Weaknesses 2.1 Production and Delivery Challenges Despite operational advances, Tesla has historically faced production bottlenecks, often referred to as “production hell” by Musk himself. The Model 3 rollout delays in 2018 exemplify such issues, revealing gaps in operational scalability (Hawkins, 2018). Though automation has improved, maintaining quality while scaling globally remains an ongoing challenge (Haojie & Tleukhanovna, 2024). 2.2 High Production Costs Tesla’s vehicles are priced at a premium compared to mass-market competitors. High battery costs, automation investments, and R&D expenditure contribute to thin profit margins (Johnson et al., 2017). This limits Tesla’s accessibility to price-sensitive consumers, particularly in emerging markets (Kotler & Keller, 2016). 2.3 Overdependence on Elon Musk Tesla’s corporate identity is intertwined with its CEO. While Musk’s leadership drives innovation, his public statements and volatile social media presence have occasionally caused stock price fluctuations and regulatory scrutiny (CNBC, 2023). Such overreliance poses a potential governance risk if leadership transition becomes necessary. 3.0 Opportunities 3.1 Global Expansion into Emerging Markets Emerging markets such as India, Brazil, and Southeast Asia present significant opportunities for Tesla’s growth. The rising middle-class consumer base and government incentives for EV adoption support favourable market entry conditions (IEA, 2024). Establishing local assembly plants in these regions could reduce import tariffs and enhance market penetration. 3.2 Energy Solutions and Diversification Beyond automobiles, Tesla’s Energy Generation and Storage segment—featuring products such as the Powerwall, Powerpack, and Solar Roof—aligns with the global transition toward renewable energy. As global carbon neutrality commitments rise, Tesla’s expansion in solar and grid-scale energy solutions could diversify revenue streams (Musk, 2023). 3.3 Autonomous Vehicle Market The autonomous vehicle market is forecasted to reach $2.5 trillion by 2030 (McKinsey, 2024). Tesla’s continuous software updates and neural network learning capabilities position it at the forefront of this technological evolution. The integration of Full Self-Driving (FSD) technologies may transform Tesla from a car manufacturer to a mobility-as-a-service provider, reshaping future business models (Grant, 2019). 3.4 Strategic Partnerships and Government Support Global initiatives to curb carbon emissions provide Tesla with strategic advantages. Subsidies and tax incentives for EVs in the UK, EU, and China continue to stimulate demand. Furthermore, collaborations with lithium suppliers and AI firms could strengthen Tesla’s innovation pipeline (Haojie & Tleukhanovna, 2024). 4.0 Threats 4.1 Intensifying Competition Tesla faces growing competition from established automakers such as Volkswagen, Ford, and General Motors, as well as new entrants like Rivian and NIO. The proliferation of EV models across price segments threatens Tesla’s market share (Forbes, 2025). These competitors benefit from established manufacturing networks and scale economies. 4.2 Regulatory and Legal Risks Tesla’s operations are subject to varying environmental regulations, safety standards, and data protection laws across markets. Any failure to comply could result in fines, recalls, or brand damage (Hill et al., 2014). Moreover, antitrust scrutiny and Autopilot-related accidents have drawn criticism and potential litigation risks (BBC News, 2023). 4.3 Raw Material Supply Constraints The rising cost of lithium, nickel, and cobalt, essential for battery production, poses a strategic threat. Global supply chain disruptions—exacerbated by geopolitical tensions—could inflate costs and impede production (IEA, 2024). 4.4 Economic Volatility and Market Saturation Macroeconomic factors, including inflation, interest rate hikes, and currency fluctuations, affect consumer purchasing power. As Western EV markets near saturation, Tesla’s growth trajectory may slow unless diversification is achieved (Kotler & Keller, 2016). 5.0 Summary Table: SWOT Matrix of Tesla Strengths Weaknesses Technological innovation & strong R&D High production costs Brand equity & market leadership Production & delivery issues Vertical integration Overdependence on Elon Musk Opportunities Threats Global expansion & renewable diversification Rising competition & regulatory risks Autonomous vehicle development Supply chain & material constraints Strategic partnerships Market saturation & economic volatility Tesla’s SWOT analysis underscores a dynamic interplay between its technological prowess and the strategic vulnerabilities of rapid growth. The firm’s innovation-driven culture, brand leadership, and vertical integration fortify its position as an industry disruptor. However, production inefficiencies, competitive pressures, and regulatory scrutiny remain significant challenges. Strategically, Tesla must leverage opportunities in renewable energy diversification and global expansion, while mitigating risks through governance reforms, cost optimisation, and supply chain resilience. In alignment with Porter’s (1985) view of strategic advantage, Tesla’s future success will hinge on sustaining differentiation through innovation and operational excellence. References Barney, J. (1991) … Read more

This comprehensive PESTEL Analysis of Apple Inc. draws from academic sources, industry reports, and credible references using the Harvard Referencing System. It examines Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental, and Legal factors shaping Apple’s macro environment and strategic direction. As a global technology leader, Apple operates within a complex landscape influenced by geopolitical tensions, economic cycles, and shifting consumer expectations. The PESTEL framework enables a systematic evaluation of how these external forces affect Apple’s operations, innovation strategy, and competitive resilience. Through this analysis, Apple’s ability to leverage brand strength, technological innovation, and sustainability initiatives while managing regulatory, ethical, and environmental challenges is explored to understand how it sustains long-term leadership in the global market. 1.0 Political Factors Apple’s operations are significantly shaped by global political dynamics. The company faces regulatory scrutiny in multiple countries due to its market dominance, tax practices, and data governance. For instance, the European Commission fined Apple for alleged anti-competitive practices (European Commission, 2020). The trade tensions between the United States and China have also affected Apple’s supply chain and increased tariffs on Chinese imports, including key iPhone components (Morrison, 2025). As Apple relies on outsourced manufacturing through partners like Foxconn in China, its exposure to geopolitical risk is high. Moreover, political instability in sourcing countries for rare-earth metals (essential for iPhones and MacBooks) raises supply chain vulnerability (Chohan, 2020). 2.0 Economic Factors Apple’s financial performance is intricately tied to macroeconomic trends, including inflation, interest rates, and exchange rate volatility. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Apple’s sales were impacted by reduced consumer spending and supply disruptions. However, the firm demonstrated resilience through digital services like Apple Music and iCloud. With inflationary pressures affecting global purchasing power, premium-priced Apple products may face elastic demand in emerging markets (Khan, Alam and Alam, 2022). Additionally, the strengthening of the US dollar reduces Apple’s international earnings when converted back to USD (Apple Inc., 2023). Apple’s strategy to increase revenue from services (which now exceeds 20% of total revenue) helps mitigate economic cyclicality (Morrison, 2025). 3.0 Social Factors Social and cultural trends heavily influence Apple’s innovation and branding. The growing preference for premium, design-centric devices among Millennials and Gen Z aligns with Apple’s brand positioning. Moreover, digital lifestyles have accelerated demand for ecosystem integration — e.g., the seamless experience between iPhone, Apple Watch, and Mac. Data privacy awareness is a significant concern. Apple has positioned itself as a privacy-first brand, implementing features such as App Tracking Transparency, winning public support but drawing criticism from advertisers (Chen, 2021). Additionally, health and wellness trends have boosted Apple Watch sales due to its health-monitoring features, including ECG and blood oxygen tracking (Liu and Bae, 2022). 4.0 Technological Factors As a technology leader, Apple invests over $27 billion annually in R&D (Apple Inc., 2023). Its strength lies in hardware-software integration, from the iOS operating system to proprietary chipsets like the M1 and M2 silicon. Apple’s transition from Intel chips to its own Apple Silicon showcases its drive for performance optimisation and cost control. This also allows for tighter integration across devices, enhancing customer experience and brand loyalty (Chapple, 2021). The company is exploring AR/VR (Apple Vision Pro) and AI technologies, competing with firms like Meta and Google. However, it lags behind in generative AI integration, creating a strategic challenge (Morrison, 2025). Cybersecurity threats, digital rights management, and platform security remain key areas requiring technological leadership to maintain user trust. 5.0 Environmental Factors Sustainability is becoming a competitive differentiator. Apple has committed to becoming carbon neutral by 2030 across its entire supply chain and product lifecycle (Apple Inc., 2023). It already uses 100% renewable energy in its corporate offices and data centres. The company’s focus on recyclable materials — such as aluminium enclosures and rare-earth recovery — supports the circular economy movement (Geissdoerfer et al., 2017). Its Daisy robot, which disassembles iPhones for component recovery, is a leading example of green innovation. Despite efforts, environmental activists question Apple’s product repairability and planned obsolescence, advocating for the Right to Repair (Monroe, 2021). 6.0 Legal Factors Apple faces intense legal scrutiny globally. The most notable include: Epic Games v. Apple: Raised concerns over App Store monopoly and commission structures (Allyn, 2021). Anti-trust lawsuits in the EU and US regarding Apple’s dominance in digital services (Morrison, 2025). Compliance with GDPR and California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) adds complexity to data management strategies. Further, Apple must navigate patent litigation, especially in highly competitive areas like semiconductors, health technology, and software interfaces. The firm’s strict intellectual property enforcement also creates friction in global markets with differing IP laws, such as China and India (Shah and Dave, 2020). Apple Inc.’s performance is deeply entwined with its macro-environment, as illustrated by the PESTEL framework. While the firm benefits from technological innovation, strong brand equity, and financial muscle, it remains exposed to regulatory, economic, and geopolitical risks. To thrive, Apple must: Strategically diversify its supply chain beyond China, Further invest in sustainability and circularity, and Maintain trust by evolving its privacy and AI governance frameworks. References Apple Inc. (2023) Annual Report 2023. [Online] Available at: https://investor.apple.com Allyn, B. (2021) ‘Judge rules Apple must allow other forms of in-app purchases in Epic lawsuit’, NPR. [Online] Available at: https://www.npr.org Chen, Y. (2021) ‘Apple’s privacy changes reshape the digital advertising industry’, Harvard Business Review, 99(4), pp. 15–18. Chohan, U.W. (2020) ‘Rare Earth Elements: Supply Risks, Alternatives and Trade Policy’, Energy Policy Journal, 140, 111428. Chapple, M. (2021) ‘Apple Silicon: The M1 Revolution’, Computer Weekly, [Online] Available at: https://www.computerweekly.com European Commission. (2020) Antitrust: Commission sends Statement of Objections to Apple on App Store rules. [Online] Available at: https://ec.europa.eu Geissdoerfer, M. et al. (2017) ‘The Circular Economy – A new sustainability paradigm?’, Journal of Cleaner Production, 143, pp. 757–768. Khan, M., Alam, R. and Alam, M. (2022) ‘Macroeconomic Determinants of Consumer Electronics Demand in Emerging Markets’, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 36(2), pp. 45–61. Liu, H. and Bae, S. (2022) ‘Wearable Tech and the Healthcare Consumer: Case of Apple Watch’, Technology in Society, 68, 101924. Monroe, J. (2021) ‘Apple and Right … Read more