Mohammad T Islam (BSc, MBA, MEd)

Literature Review: Grounding Research in Existing Knowledge and Identifying Research Gaps

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Once a research topic is clearly defined, the next critical stage in the research process is conducting a literature review. The literature review plays a central role in ensuring that the study is grounded in existing knowledge, identifies research gaps, and demonstrates how the new work fits within broader academic debates. According to Hart (2018), the literature review is a “systematic examination of existing knowledge” that enables the researcher to map the intellectual landscape of their field. This article explores the purpose, process, and significance of reviewing the literature. It examines best practices, outlines common challenges, and presents examples from business, social sciences, and education research. The Purpose of a Literature Review A literature review serves multiple purposes. First, it ensures that researchers are not duplicating existing studies unnecessarily (Bryman & Bell, 2015). For example, if a researcher is exploring digital consumer behaviour, they must review existing works such as Chaffey and Ellis-Chadwick (2019), who provide frameworks for understanding how digital marketing influences consumer decision-making. By doing so, the researcher avoids repeating established findings and instead contributes something original. Second, the review highlights gaps in knowledge. For instance, while much has been written about the role of social media in marketing, fewer studies have explored how artificial intelligence tools (e.g., chatbots) influence consumer trust (Luo et al., 2019). Identifying such gaps allows the researcher to justify the relevance of their project. Third, the review establishes the theoretical foundation of the study. By drawing on established theories—such as Ajzen’s (1991) Theory of Planned Behaviour or Rogers’ (2003) Diffusion of Innovations—researchers can position their work within accepted frameworks. This not only strengthens the academic quality of the research but also improves its credibility. Sources of Literature An effective review requires consulting a range of sources: Textbooks – These provide foundational knowledge and theoretical frameworks. For example, Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill’s (2019) Research Methods for Business Students is widely used in management and business studies. Academic journals – Peer-reviewed articles offer up-to-date research findings. Journals such as Journal of Business Research and British Journal of Sociology provide empirical insights that textbooks may not cover. Conference papers – These can reveal emerging trends before they appear in journals (Sharp, Peters & Howard, 2017). Credible online sources – Reports from organisations such as the OECD or World Bank offer statistical data and policy insights. However, sources must be evaluated critically for reliability and bias. A strong literature review draws upon a balanced mixture of these resources, demonstrating both breadth and depth of understanding. The Process of Reviewing the Literature 1.0 Defining Keywords Researchers must first identify keywords and search terms related to their topic. For example, a study on sustainable fashion might use terms such as “ethical consumption”, “fast fashion”, and “consumer attitudes towards sustainability” (Henninger et al., 2016). 2.0 Systematic Searching Academic databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar are crucial for locating high-quality sources (Booth, Sutton & Papaioannou, 2016). A systematic search strategy ensures that important studies are not overlooked. 3.0 Reading and Categorising As sources are collected, researchers must categorise them into themes. For example, literature on digital marketing might be grouped into social media marketing, search engine optimisation, and consumer psychology. 4.0 Critical Evaluation A review should not be a simple summary of past works. Instead, it requires critical evaluation—analysing strengths, weaknesses, methodologies, and biases. For example, while survey-based studies provide large data sets, they may not capture the depth of consumer emotions (Silverman, 2020). 5.0 Synthesis Finally, the literature must be synthesised into a coherent narrative. This involves connecting themes, identifying contradictions, and showing how existing knowledge informs the proposed research (Hart, 2018). Importance of Critical Evaluation A common mistake among novice researchers is to treat a literature review as a descriptive summary. However, the true value lies in critically engaging with the material. As Jesson, Matheson and Lacey (2011) emphasise, critical reviewing demonstrates understanding, originality, and scholarly rigour. For example, when reviewing studies on remote learning, one might note that quantitative surveys show improvements in student flexibility (Means et al., 2014), but qualitative research reveals challenges in student motivation and digital equity (Stone & Springer, 2019). By highlighting these contradictions, the researcher can position their study as addressing an unresolved debate. Examples of Effective Literature Reviews Example 1: Business Research In a study on leadership in SMEs, Bolden et al. (2016) combined classic theories of leadership with recent findings on entrepreneurial leadership styles. Their review identified a gap: while much is known about leadership in large corporations, less research explores context-specific leadership in small firms. Example 2: Education In exploring inclusive education, Florian and Black-Hawkins (2011) reviewed both policy frameworks and classroom practices. Their critical analysis showed inconsistencies between government policy rhetoric and actual teacher practices, leading to recommendations for teacher training. Example 3: Health Sciences In reviewing literature on patient-centred care, Epstein and Street (2011) identified the importance of communication between doctors and patients. Their synthesis of evidence from psychology, sociology, and medicine created an interdisciplinary foundation for new research. These examples illustrate how literature reviews not only summarise past work but also build bridges across disciplines and point towards future directions. Challenges in Conducting a Literature Review While literature reviews are essential, they present several challenges: Information overload: With vast numbers of publications available, researchers may struggle to filter relevant studies (Booth et al., 2016). Bias: Selecting only supportive studies can create a skewed picture (Tranfield, Denyer & Smart, 2003). Access issues: Paywalls can limit access to journals, making it harder for students to obtain peer-reviewed work. Time management: A comprehensive review requires significant planning to avoid becoming overly time-consuming. To overcome these challenges, researchers are encouraged to use reference management tools (e.g., EndNote, Zotero) and adopt systematic review methods where appropriate. A literature review is a cornerstone of academic research. It ensures that the researcher is building on existing knowledge, identifies gaps in the field, and establishes the theoretical and methodological framework for the study. Importantly, a literature review is not just … Read more

Qualitative Research Proposal: A Practical Example

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Title: The Perceptions and Experiences of Consumers Engaging with Sustainable Fashion Brands Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Background to Research Topic The first step in constructing a strong research proposal is to establish the context and focus of the study. This research explores the perceptions and experiences of consumers engaging with sustainable fashion brands. With rising concerns about climate change and ethical consumption, sustainability has become central to consumer decision-making (Joy et al., 2012; Fletcher & Tham, 2019). This qualitative research proposal will outline research design to investigate how consumers perceive, interpret, and respond to sustainable fashion practices in the UK retail industry. 1.2 Background to Research Organisation The research will be based on the UK-based fashion retailer EcoWear, established in 2016. EcoWear promotes its commitment to sustainable fabrics, ethical sourcing, and recycling schemes. The company has cultivated a loyal following on social media and engages in storytelling marketing to emphasise transparency in supply chains. The study will assess how EcoWear’s sustainability messages are understood and valued by its consumers. 1.3 Research Rationale The rationale stems from the rapid growth of the sustainable fashion market and the lack of qualitative research on consumer perceptions. While quantitative studies have measured attitudes towards eco-friendly consumption (Henninger et al., 2016), fewer have examined the lived experiences and narratives of consumers. This study seeks to provide rich insights into how sustainability claims are interpreted, helping businesses align practices with consumer expectations. 1.4 Research Aim The aim of this research is to explore consumer perceptions and experiences of sustainable fashion practices promoted by EcoWear. 1.5 Research Objectives To explore how consumers interpret EcoWear’s sustainability claims. To examine the role of storytelling and branding in shaping consumer perceptions. To understand the emotional and ethical factors influencing sustainable consumption choices. Chapter 2: Research Methodology 2.1 Research Philosophy The research adopts an interpretivist philosophy, which emphasises understanding the meanings and experiences of participants (Saunders et al., 2019). Interpretivism is appropriate here, as the research seeks to uncover subjective perspectives rather than measure variables objectively. 2.2 Research Design A phenomenological design will be employed to capture the essence of consumer experiences with sustainable fashion (Smith et al., 2009). This design allows for a deep exploration of participants’ feelings, motivations, and interpretations. 2.3 Research Approach An inductive approach will be adopted, building theories from participant narratives rather than testing pre-existing hypotheses (Creswell & Poth, 2018). This aligns with the goal of generating new insights into sustainable consumption. 2.4 Research Strategy The research strategy will be a case study of EcoWear. The case study approach allows for an in-depth contextual analysis of how consumers engage with a single organisation’s sustainability efforts (Yin, 2018). 2.5 Research Methodology This study will utilise a qualitative methodology through semi-structured interviews. This method allows participants to share their personal experiences while enabling the researcher to probe for deeper insights (Silverman, 2020). 2.6 Research Techniques/Tools Primary data will be collected using semi-structured interviews with 15–20 EcoWear consumers. Interviews will focus on their interpretations of EcoWear’s messages, purchasing motivations, and views on sustainable consumption. Interviews will be recorded (with consent), transcribed, and analysed thematically. 2.7 Sampling Approach The study will use purposive sampling to select participants who have purchased from EcoWear within the last year. This ensures participants have direct engagement with the brand (Etikan et al., 2016). 2.8 Ethical Considerations Key ethical considerations include informed consent, confidentiality, and data protection. Participants will be fully informed about the purpose of the study, and pseudonyms will be used in transcripts to ensure anonymity. Data will be stored securely in compliance with GDPR guidelines (Babbie, 2016; Israel & Hay, 2006). Chapter 3: Literature Review (Selected Sources) Fletcher, K., & Tham, M. (2019). Earth Logic: Fashion Action Research Plan. The J J Charitable Trust. Henninger, C. E., Alevizou, P. J., & Oates, C. (2016). What is sustainable fashion? Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 20(4), 400–416. Joy, A., Sherry, J. F., Venkatesh, A., Wang, J., & Chan, R. (2012). Fast fashion, sustainability, and the ethical appeal of luxury brands. Fashion Theory, 16(3), 273–295. Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2019). Research Methods for Business Students. Pearson. Silverman, D. (2020). Interpreting Qualitative Data. Sage. Smith, J. A., Flowers, P., & Larkin, M. (2009). Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. Sage. Chapter 4: Timescale Task Time Frame Initial Research & Proposal Weeks 1–3 Literature Review Weeks 4–6 Data Collection (Interviews) Weeks 7–9 Data Analysis Weeks 10–11 Final Draft Writing Weeks 12–14 Final Submission Week 15 References Babbie, E. R. (2016). The Practice of Social Research. Cengage Learning. Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches. Sage. Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1–4. Fletcher, K., & Tham, M. (2019). Earth Logic: Fashion Action Research Plan. The J J Charitable Trust. Henninger, C. E., Alevizou, P. J., & Oates, C. (2016). What is sustainable fashion? Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 20(4), 400–416. Israel, M., & Hay, I. (2006). Research Ethics for Social Scientists. Sage. Joy, A., Sherry, J. F., Venkatesh, A., Wang, J., & Chan, R. (2012). Fast fashion, sustainability, and the ethical appeal of luxury brands. Fashion Theory, 16(3), 273–295. Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2019). Research Methods for Business Students. Pearson. Silverman, D. (2020). Interpreting Qualitative Data. Sage. Smith, J. A., Flowers, P., & Larkin, M. (2009). Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. Sage. Yin, R. K. (2018). Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods. Sage.

Quantitative Research Proposal: A Practical Example

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Title: The Impact of Digital Marketing Strategies on Consumer Behaviour Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Background to Research Topic The initial step in developing a strong research proposal is to understand the core of the research topic. This research explores the impact of digital marketing strategies on consumer behaviour. With the growing digital transformation, businesses are increasingly shifting their marketing strategies towards digital platforms such as social media, search engines, and e-commerce sites (Chaffey & Ellis-Chadwick, 2019; Strauss & Frost, 2016). The rise of these platforms has transformed traditional marketing methods, prompting the need to study how consumers interact with brands in the digital space (Tiago & Veríssimo, 2014). 1.2 Background to Research Organisation This research will focus on a mid-sized e-commerce company, TechTraders, which primarily sells electronic gadgets. Founded in 2015, TechTraders has rapidly expanded in the digital space and has a strong online presence. The company’s digital marketing strategies range from social media campaigns to influencer marketing and pay-per-click (PPC) advertising (Charlesworth, 2020). This study will evaluate how TechTraders’ digital marketing efforts influence consumer purchasing decisions. 1.3 Research Rationale The rationale for this research stems from the increasing importance of digital marketing in driving business success. According to Kotler et al. (2017), businesses that effectively use digital marketing can significantly improve customer engagement and sales. However, there is limited empirical research on how specific strategies (e.g., PPC, social media) influence consumer behaviour in mid-sized companies (Kingsnorth, 2019). This study aims to fill this research gap and provide practical insights for businesses. 1.4 Research Aim The aim of this research is to assess the impact of digital marketing strategies, particularly social media and PPC advertising, on consumer purchasing decisions at TechTraders. 1.5 Research Objectives To examine the effectiveness of social media campaigns in influencing consumer behaviour. To analyse the role of PPC advertising in driving traffic and sales for TechTraders. To explore how digital marketing strategies contribute to brand loyalty and repeat purchases. Chapter 2: Research Methodology 2.1 Research Philosophies/Paradigms The chosen research philosophy is interpretivism, as it seeks to understand how consumers perceive and react to digital marketing strategies (Saunders et al., 2019). Interpretivism focuses on subjective experiences, making it ideal for studying consumer behaviour. In contrast, positivism, which emphasises objectivity, is less suited here because consumer decision-making involves complex, subjective responses (Collis & Hussey, 2021). 2.2 Research Design The study will adopt an exploratory design to investigate the dynamic relationship between digital marketing strategies and consumer behaviour. Since digital marketing is constantly evolving, an exploratory approach provides a flexible framework for identifying trends and emerging consumer patterns (Robson & McCartan, 2016; Bell et al., 2018). 2.3 Research Approach A deductive approach will be employed. Deductive reasoning starts with established theories and uses them to guide empirical research (Bryman & Bell, 2015). This is appropriate because the study aims to test existing theories of digital marketing and consumer behaviour in a new context (i.e., TechTraders). 2.4 Research Strategy/Method The research strategy will be a case study. This allows an in-depth exploration of how digital marketing strategies are implemented at TechTraders and how they influence consumer behaviour (Yin, 2018). The case study method is suitable for generating contextualised insights (Stake, 1995). 2.5 Research Methodology The study will adopt a qualitative methodology. Qualitative research allows for in-depth interviews with consumers and marketing personnel, exploring their attitudes, perceptions, and behaviours (Creswell, 2014; Silverman, 2020). This approach generates rich insights into the subjective experience of consumers. 2.6 Research Techniques/Tools The study will use semi-structured interviews as the primary data collection tool. Interviews with TechTraders’ consumers will provide insights into their responses to digital campaigns (Gill et al., 2008). Semi-structured interviews enable flexibility in questioning, encouraging participants to share detailed experiences. 2.7 Sampling Approach A non-probability purposive sampling approach will be used. Since the study aims to understand specific consumer experiences, purposive sampling allows selection of participants who have engaged with TechTraders’ digital marketing efforts (Etikan et al., 2016). A sample size of 20 consumers is proposed, sufficient for generating in-depth qualitative data (Guest et al., 2020). 2.8 Ethical Considerations Ethical considerations include informed consent, confidentiality, and data protection. Participants will be briefed on the purpose of the study, and consent forms will be distributed. Data will be anonymised to protect identities and stored in compliance with GDPR regulations (Babbie, 2016; Israel & Hay, 2006). Chapter 3: Literature Review (Selected Sources) Chaffey, D., & Ellis-Chadwick, F. (2019). Digital Marketing: Strategy, Implementation, and Practice. Pearson. Kotler, P., Keller, K. L., & Brady, M. (2017). Marketing Management. Pearson. Kingsnorth, S. (2019). Digital Marketing Strategy: An Integrated Approach to Online Marketing. Kogan Page. Strauss, J., & Frost, R. (2016). E-Marketing. Routledge. Tiago, M. T. P. M. B., & Veríssimo, J. M. C. (2014). Digital marketing and social media: Why bother? Business Horizons, 57(6), 703–708. Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2019). Research Methods for Business Students. Pearson. Chapter 4: Timescale[ Task Time Frame Initial Research & Proposal Weeks 1–3 Literature Review Weeks 4–6 Data Collection (Interviews) Weeks 7–9 Data Analysis Weeks 10–11 Final Draft Writing Weeks 12–14 Final Submission Week 15 References Babbie, E. R. (2016). The Practice of Social Research. Cengage Learning. Bell, E., Bryman, A., & Harley, B. (2018). Business Research Methods. Oxford University Press. Bryman, A., & Bell, E. (2015). Business Research Methods. Oxford University Press. Charlesworth, A. (2020). Digital Marketing: A Practical Approach. Routledge. Collis, J., & Hussey, R. (2021). Business Research: A Practical Guide for Undergraduate and Postgraduate Students. Palgrave Macmillan. Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Sage. Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1–4. Gill, P., Stewart, K., Treasure, E., & Chadwick, B. (2008). Methods of data collection in qualitative research: Interviews and focus groups. British Dental Journal, 204(6), 291–295. Guest, G., Namey, E., & Chen, M. (2020). A simple method to assess and report thematic saturation in qualitative research. PLOS ONE, 15(5). Israel, … Read more

Top Universities in the USA to Study Business Administration

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Pursuing a Business Administration degree in the United States is one of the most strategic decisions a student can make. With a globalised economy and fast-evolving business environment, students require more than theoretical knowledge—they need industry exposure, critical thinking, and leadership skills. The United States is home to some of the world’s most prestigious universities offering cutting-edge programmes in Business Administration, and these institutions serve as breeding grounds for future CEOs, entrepreneurs, and policy leaders. This article explores top Universities in the USA analysing academic prestige, career prospects, and curricular excellence. Why Study Business Administration in the USA? The USA is recognised globally as a powerhouse of business education, with institutions offering accredited degrees, international faculty, and robust alumni networks. Business schools in the USA are well-integrated with the industries they serve, offering experiential learning through internships, incubators, case competitions, and corporate partnerships (Shah, 2025). According to AACSB International (2024), over 800 business schools in the US are accredited by global bodies, ensuring quality and consistency in teaching and curriculum development. Leading Institutions Offering Business Administration Degrees The following are some of the top-ranked universities in the USA for Business Administration, based on academic reputation, graduate outcomes, and industry relevance. 1.0 Harvard University – Harvard Business School (HBS) Arguably the most renowned business school in the world, HBS offers a Bachelor’s route via Economics or Social Studies, and the MBA programme is globally recognised. Harvard focuses on the case method, ensuring students learn to apply concepts in real-world situations (Koya, 2025). Its alumni network includes business titans like Michael Bloomberg and Sheryl Sandberg. 2.0 University of Pennsylvania – Wharton School Wharton was the first collegiate business school in the US and remains a trailblazer. With concentrations in Finance, Marketing, Entrepreneurship, and more, Wharton offers both BBA and MBA tracks. It is especially strong in quantitative disciplines like Econometrics and Decision Processes (Shah, 2025). 3.0 Stanford University – Graduate School of Business Located in Silicon Valley, Stanford is closely tied to the technology and start-up ecosystem. Its MBA programme and undergraduate business foundations are designed to foster innovation, leadership, and global thinking (Ayangeadoo & Abudullahi, 2025). Many successful entrepreneurs like the founders of Google and Netflix are Stanford alumni. 4.0 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) – Sloan School of Management MIT’s Sloan School combines engineering excellence with business insight. The Business Administration curriculum emphasises data analytics, systems thinking, and entrepreneurship. MIT’s action learning labs are considered revolutionary in business education (Sahu & Behera, 2025). 5.0 University of California, Berkeley – Haas School of Business Berkeley’s Haas School is known for its emphasis on responsible business leadership. Its “Defining Leadership Principles” focus on questioning the status quo, confidence without attitude, students always, and beyond yourself. It offers both undergraduate and MBA programmes with flexible specialisations (Mai, 2025). 6.0 University of Michigan – Ross School of Business Ross boasts a hands-on approach to business education. Their MAP (Multidisciplinary Action Projects) provide real consulting experience to students. The BBA and MBA programmes are well-integrated with global business trends (Esitikot & Udosen, 2025). 7.0 New York University – Stern School of Business Stern’s strategic location in New York City places students at the heart of the finance, fashion, media, and tech worlds. The undergraduate business programme offers 13 specialisations and global study options (Handoko et al., 2025). 8.0 Columbia University – Columbia Business School Columbia offers a highly competitive MBA and Executive MBA programme and an Economics-focused undergraduate pathway. Its focus is on global markets, strategy, and finance, supported by top-tier research output (Buechele et al., 2025). Features That Distinguish US Business Schools Curriculum Innovation US business schools adapt quickly to industry needs. Today, many programmes incorporate sustainability, AI, blockchain, and DEI (Diversity, Equity & Inclusion) into the core curriculum (Tembo & Sikalumbi, 2025). Global Learning Environment Top institutions admit students from 100+ countries, providing a dynamic, culturally diverse classroom. This boosts cultural intelligence, a critical skill in international business leadership (Kesar et al., 2025). Industry Integration Schools like Stanford and MIT embed students into real-world businesses through capstones and incubators. These experiences bridge the gap between theory and practice (Doyle, 2025). Career Outcomes for Business Graduates Graduates from the top US business schools often land roles in Fortune 500 companies, global consulting firms, and tech giants. For example: Wharton reports 94% job placement within three months of graduation. HBS graduates average a starting salary of $150,000+ post-MBA. Ross (Michigan) boasts employment at firms like Amazon, McKinsey, and Goldman Sachs. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2024), management occupations are projected to grow 8% from 2022 to 2032, faster than the average for all occupations. Considerations When Choosing a US Business School Accreditation: Ensure AACSB, AMBA, or EQUIS accreditation. Specialisation: Choose programmes aligned with your interest (e.g., Finance, Marketing, Entrepreneurship). Alumni Network: Strong networks enhance job prospects and mentorship. Campus Culture: Some schools are highly competitive, others collaborative. Location: Proximity to business hubs like NYC, SF, or Chicago enhances internship and job opportunities. The USA remains a global leader in business education, thanks to its innovative teaching methodologies, influential alumni, and industry engagement. From Ivy League institutions like Harvard and Wharton to tech-driven powerhouses like Stanford and MIT, the choices are vast and diverse. For international and domestic students alike, choosing a Business Administration degree in the US is not just an academic decision—it’s an investment in a globally impactful career. References Ayangeadoo, H.Y. & Abudullahi, N. (2025). Effect of Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy on Entrepreneurial Intention. AJBAM. Buechele, S. et al. (2025). University Appointments and Institutional Prestige. RePEc. Doyle, S.A. (2025). Horticultural Crop Modelling for Decision Support. Purdue University. Esitikot, D.E. & Udosen, A.E. (2025). Gamification in Business Education. IJBEFA. Handoko, M.B. et al. (2025). Student Interests in Business Tracks. Jurnal KDI. Kesar, O., Hodak, D.F. & Roginić, E. (2025). Stakeholder Perceptions in Business Education. ICTHM. Koya, S.A. (2025). Effective Leadership Strategies in Business Administration. Walden University. Mai, N.X. (2025). Blockchain Adoption in Supply Chains. UEH Digital Library. Robbins, S.P. & Coulter, M. … Read more

Top Universities in the UK to Study Business Management (Business Studies)

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Business Management remains one of the most sought-after degrees globally, offering students a gateway into a variety of industries, from finance and marketing to entrepreneurship and international trade. The United Kingdom, with its rich academic heritage, diverse student population, and strong business ties, stands out as a leading destination for business education. But what are the top universities in the UK to pursue a degree in Business Management, and what makes them exceptional? The Academic Landscape: A Global Leader in Business Education The UK consistently ranks as one of the top destinations for business education, thanks to its internationally renowned universities, strong links to industry, and focus on both academic theory and practical application. According to the Financial Times Global MBA Rankings, several UK business schools, including those at University of Oxford, London Business School, and University of Cambridge, feature among the world’s top 20 (Financial Times, 2024). Additionally, data from the QS World University Rankings by Subject (2024) affirms this prominence, placing UK institutions like the University of Warwick, Imperial College London, and University of Manchester within the top 50 globally for Business and Management studies (QS, 2024). Leading Institutions in Business Management Let’s take a deeper look at some of the top UK universities offering Business Management degrees, drawing from both academic reputation and graduate outcomes. 1.0 London Business School (LBS) Renowned for postgraduate education, LBS is often ranked as Europe’s top business school. Its Master in Management (MiM) programme is highly competitive and globally recognised. The school fosters strong industry connections, particularly in finance and consulting, leading to exceptional employability (Benavente et al., 2025). 2.0 University of Oxford – Saïd Business School Oxford’s business education is embedded within a world-leading research university. The BSc in Economics and Management at Oxford is one of the most prestigious undergraduate programmes in the UK. It offers a blend of rigorous theoretical training and real-world application (Blakeley & Tazzyman, 2025). 3.0 University of Cambridge – Judge Business School Cambridge is known for academic rigour, and its Management Studies Tripos offers a multidisciplinary approach. The programme is taught with input from Cambridge’s departments of economics, sociology, and engineering, making it uniquely holistic (Georgescu & Lungu, 2025). 4.0 University of Warwick – Warwick Business School (WBS) Warwick is often lauded for its practical focus and strong international partnerships. WBS delivers a BSc Management programme that integrates entrepreneurship, digital transformation, and global strategy. It also boasts high employability rates, especially in consulting and tech sectors (Kennedy, 2025). 5.0 Imperial College London – Imperial College Business School Imperial’s strong STEM focus enriches its business curriculum with cutting-edge insights in data analytics, fintech, and innovation management. Its business management programmes offer close engagement with London-based start-ups and multinationals (Alshehri, 2025). 6.0 University of Manchester – Alliance Manchester Business School Manchester’s diverse student cohort and strong placement record make it an appealing choice. It offers flexibility in specialisations, including marketing, human resource management, and international business, supported by a robust academic framework (Rodzi & Abdullah, 2025). 7.0 University of Edinburgh Business School Edinburgh offers a highly international learning environment and strong research output in areas like organisational behaviour and strategic management. Located in one of the UK’s most vibrant cities, it supports strong internship and placement schemes (Abbasi et al., 2025). What Makes a UK Business Degree Stand Out? Global Recognition UK business degrees are internationally accredited by bodies such as AACSB, AMBA, and EQUIS, enhancing their global employability. Industry Integration Many UK universities foster close collaborations with global employers, including internships, consulting projects, and entrepreneurship incubators. For instance, Imperial and LBS students often work directly with industry leaders on live business cases (Perin, 2025). Curriculum Design The curricula in top UK business schools are not static. They evolve to integrate emerging trends such as digital transformation, sustainability, and diversity in leadership. This relevance enhances the practical value of the education (Martin, 2025). Research Excellence Institutions like Oxford, Cambridge, and Warwick are leading contributors to academic research in areas like corporate governance, organisational behaviour, and entrepreneurship ecosystems (Modise, 2025). Career Outcomes: Launchpads to Success According to the Graduate Outcomes survey by HESA (2024), graduates from top UK business programmes report higher-than-average starting salaries and quick transitions into employment. Fields like consulting, finance, marketing, and tech dominate their career choices. A University of Manchester report indicated that 92% of business graduates were in employment or further study within six months, while Warwick’s graduates often land roles at top firms such as PwC, Deloitte, and Google (QS, 2024). International Student Appeal The UK attracts over 150,000 international students annually for business-related degrees (UKCISA, 2024). This is thanks to: Globally respected degrees Multicultural campuses Post-study work options (Graduate Route Visa) The presence of global talent in the classroom creates a rich learning ecosystem, enhancing cultural intelligence and soft skills—critical for global business leadership (Archer, 2025). A Final Word: Choosing the Right Fit While rankings and prestige are important, students should also evaluate: Specialisation tracks Teaching methodology (case-based, research-led, etc.) Campus culture and location Support services for career and wellbeing For those seeking a blend of theory, practice, and global exposure, the UK remains an unparalleled choice. References Abbasi, I.A., Shoaib, M. & Alshehri, M. (2025). Utilizing CBNet to Combat Cyberbullying among University Students. Scientific Reports. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-09091-y. Alshehri, M. (2025). Impact of Appointment Processes on NED Performance. University of Wolverhampton Repository. Archer, S. (2025). Demographic Differences in Choosing Business Degrees. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses. Benavente, C.L., Hernández, D.M. & Lisbona, R.L. (2025). International Trends in Business Education. Open Respiratory Reviews. Blakeley, S. & Tazzyman, A. (2025). Impactful Academic Departments: Learning from REF Leaders. Edward Elgar Publishing. Georgescu, M.R. & Lungu, A.E. (2025). Digital Transformation and Business Education. ProQuest Journal of Economics and Business. Kennedy, E. (2025). The Transformative Potential of MOOCs in Business Learning. UK Data Service. Martin, T.I. (2025). Best Management Practices in Business Curricula. University of Nottingham Repository. Modise, M. (2025). Enhancing Business Skill Portfolios in Higher Education. Applied Sciences Research Periodicals. Perin, F. (2025). Role of Industry … Read more

The Earning Prospects for Business Graduates in the USA

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A Business degree remains one of the most popular qualifications in the United States, reflecting the broad career opportunities it provides across industries such as finance, consulting, technology, marketing, and entrepreneurship. The earning prospects for business graduates in the USA vary considerably depending on industry, role, location, and level of education. For many graduates, the degree offers not only strong starting salaries but also significant long-term earning potential, making it a highly valuable investment. This article examines the earning prospects for US business graduates, exploring average salaries, sectoral differences, graduate schemes, and the factors influencing compensation. It also considers long-term career growth and the role of postgraduate education such as the MBA (Master of Business Administration). Average Salaries for Business Graduates According to the National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE, 2023), the average starting salary for business graduates in the US is approximately $60,695 per year, which is higher than the national average for all bachelor’s degree graduates. Business graduates specialising in finance, management, and information systems often command the highest starting pay. For example: Finance graduates average around $61,000 annually (NACE, 2023). Management information systems graduates report starting salaries above $65,000, reflecting the growing importance of data and technology in business decision-making. Marketing graduates average around $56,000, with higher pay in digital marketing and analytics roles. General business administration graduates earn between $50,000 and $55,000, depending on the region and employer. These figures suggest that a business degree offers competitive earning potential compared to many other fields of study. Salaries by Sector Finance and Investment Banking The finance sector is one of the most lucrative for business graduates. Investment bankers in New York, for instance, can start with salaries exceeding $100,000, often supplemented with large bonuses (Vault, 2023). Other finance-related roles such as financial analysts and corporate accountants average between $60,000 and $75,000 annually at entry level (Bureau of Labor Statistics [BLS], 2023). Management Consulting Consulting is another high-paying sector. Entry-level consultants at leading firms such as McKinsey & Company, Bain & Company, and Boston Consulting Group (BCG) typically earn $90,000 to $110,000, with signing bonuses and performance incentives included (Glassdoor, 2023). These roles are highly competitive, requiring strong academic performance and relevant internships. Technology Sector With the rise of tech companies such as Google, Amazon, and Microsoft, many business graduates are employed in roles like product management, operations, and digital marketing. According to PayScale (2023), starting salaries in tech-oriented business roles range from $70,000 to $90,000, with rapid progression and stock options offering additional wealth-building opportunities. Marketing and Advertising While entry-level salaries in marketing and advertising are typically lower than in finance or consulting, they offer significant growth potential. Graduates in digital marketing roles often start at $50,000 to $60,000, but with experience in areas such as SEO, data analytics, or brand strategy, salaries can exceed $100,000. The rise of social media marketing has also created lucrative opportunities for those with digital expertise (Kotler & Keller, 2016). Human Resources Human resources (HR) positions, including HR specialists and recruiters, usually offer starting salaries between $48,000 and $55,000. However, senior HR managers and directors can earn over $120,000, particularly in large corporations where talent management and organisational culture are strategic priorities (Armstrong & Taylor, 2014). Factors Influencing Salary Industry and Role The industry and job role are primary determinants of salary. High-demand sectors like finance, technology, and consulting pay more than fields such as hospitality or retail management. Location Salaries vary significantly by geographic region. For instance, graduates in cities such as New York, San Francisco, and Boston typically earn 20–30% more than those in smaller cities due to the higher cost of living and concentration of corporate headquarters (BLS, 2023). Employer Large multinational corporations often offer higher salaries and better benefits compared to smaller firms. For example, Google and Goldman Sachs provide entry-level packages that can exceed $100,000, while smaller regional firms may offer less than $55,000 for similar roles. Education Level and Certifications Business graduates who pursue further education, such as an MBA, can significantly increase their earning potential. According to the Graduate Management Admission Council (GMAC, 2022), the median starting salary for MBA graduates in the US is $115,000, nearly double the starting salary for bachelor’s graduates. Certifications in areas such as accounting (CPA), finance (CFA), or project management (PMP) also improve salary prospects. Career Growth and Long-term Earnings While entry-level salaries for business graduates are competitive, the long-term earning potential is particularly attractive. With experience and career progression, salaries can rise dramatically: Mid-level managers in finance, consulting, or marketing often earn between $90,000 and $120,000. Senior executives, such as Chief Financial Officers (CFOs) or Chief Marketing Officers (CMOs), earn well above $150,000 to $200,000, with bonuses and stock options adding to overall compensation (Brigham & Ehrhardt, 2013). The US Bureau of Labor Statistics (2023) reports that the median annual wage for management occupations overall is $102,450, the highest of any major occupational category. This highlights that while starting salaries vary, the long-term rewards of a business career are substantial. Challenges and Considerations Despite attractive earning prospects, business graduates must also navigate challenges: High competition in lucrative fields such as consulting and investment banking means not all graduates secure top-paying roles. Cost of living in major US cities can reduce the real value of salaries. Student debt is a significant issue in the US. Graduates often start their careers with loans exceeding $30,000, which may influence their financial decisions (Federal Reserve, 2023). Nonetheless, the return on investment (ROI) of a business degree remains strong compared to many other fields of study. The earning prospects for business graduates in the USA are among the most attractive of all academic disciplines. While starting salaries vary by sector, location, and employer, average pay levels are consistently higher than the national average for graduates. Fields such as finance, consulting, and technology offer the highest initial salaries, while roles in marketing, HR, and retail provide steady growth with experience. The potential for long-term salary progression, coupled with opportunities for advancement … Read more

Adaptation in Strategic Management: Sustaining Competitiveness in Dynamic Environments

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In today’s dynamic business environment, the ability of organisations for adaptation is critical for sustaining long-term success and competitiveness. Strategic adaptation refers to the continuous process of adjusting organisational strategies, structures, and processes in response to internal and external changes (Rumelt et al., 2019). Unlike static approaches to strategy, adaptation recognises the uncertainty and turbulence inherent in global markets, technological advancements, and shifting consumer preferences. This article explores the significance of adaptation in strategic management, the theoretical foundations underpinning adaptive strategies, the role of dynamic capabilities, and practical examples of how organisations achieve sustained competitiveness through adaptation. The Importance of Strategic Adaptation Strategic adaptation ensures that organisations remain relevant amidst environmental changes. Factors such as globalisation, technological disruption, evolving regulatory frameworks, and changes in consumer behaviour necessitate continuous realignment of strategies (Teece, 2007). Organisations that fail to adapt risk losing their competitive position, as illustrated by the decline of Blockbuster, which was unable to respond effectively to digital streaming innovations, while Netflix transformed from a DVD rental service into a dominant online streaming platform (McDonald & Eisenhardt, 2020). Adaptation also enhances resilience by allowing firms to not only respond to crises but also anticipate opportunities. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, organisations such as Zoom rapidly scaled their technological infrastructure to meet the surge in demand, demonstrating the importance of adaptive capacity in uncertain times (Seetharaman, 2020). Theoretical Foundations of Adaptation The academic basis of strategic adaptation is grounded in theories such as Contingency Theory, the Dynamic Capabilities Framework, and Organisational Learning Theory. Contingency Theory suggests that there is no single best way to organise or strategise; instead, the effectiveness of a strategy depends on the fit between the organisation and its environment (Donaldson, 2001). The Dynamic Capabilities Framework (Teece, Pisano & Shuen, 1997) emphasises the ability of organisations to sense, seize, and transform resources to match environmental demands. This perspective argues that long-term success is not about possessing resources but about renewing and reconfiguring them. Organisational Learning Theory highlights the importance of continuous learning and knowledge integration for adaptation. Organisations that encourage learning are more likely to identify changes early and innovate accordingly (Argyris & Schön, 1996). Dynamic Capabilities and Adaptation A central concept in strategic adaptation is the notion of dynamic capabilities. These capabilities go beyond operational effectiveness and focus on the ability of firms to reconfigure competencies in response to changing environments (Teece, 2007). Examples include: Apple’s innovation ecosystem, where capabilities in design, supply chain management, and marketing are continually reconfigured to launch new products. Toyota’s lean manufacturing system, which evolved into a model of adaptive efficiency, allowing the company to maintain competitiveness across decades (Liker, 2004). Research shows that firms with strong dynamic capabilities are better equipped to navigate digital transformation, global competition, and regulatory change (Benini, Nikou & Calabretta, 2025). Organisational Culture and Strategic Adaptation Adaptation is not merely structural or operational; it also involves a transformation in organisational culture. Adaptive organisations foster a culture of innovation, agility, and continuous learning. For instance, Google’s 20% time policy encouraged employees to pursue innovative projects outside their regular roles, leading to the development of services such as Gmail. Similarly, Spotify’s agile squad model demonstrates how cultural flexibility enables rapid innovation in response to user demands (Denning, 2018). Conversely, organisations resistant to cultural adaptation often face decline. Kodak, despite pioneering digital photography, clung to its traditional film-based business model due to cultural rigidity, leading to bankruptcy (Lucas & Goh, 2009). Adaptation and Digital Transformation The rise of digital technologies has amplified the necessity for adaptation. Firms across industries are leveraging artificial intelligence (AI), big data analytics, and automation to transform their operations. Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), for example, are increasingly adopting AI-driven tools to optimise e-commerce performance. Research by Karimi and Ranani (2025) indicates that SMEs with stronger adaptive capabilities are more likely to achieve successful digital integration. Similarly, airline companies are adapting by implementing digital transformation strategies such as AI-based scheduling and customer engagement tools to maintain competitiveness (Yıldız & Mazıoğlu, 2025). Strategic Adaptation in Crisis Situations Crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic, geopolitical conflicts, and climate change highlight the role of adaptation in survival. Organisations with adaptive leadership were able to restructure operations, introduce remote working models, and innovate supply chains during the pandemic (Ramadhan & Nabila, 2025). For instance, Unilever adapted by reconfiguring its production lines to manufacture hand sanitisers, while luxury brands such as LVMH repurposed perfume factories for medical supply production. These adaptive strategies not only safeguarded operations but also enhanced corporate reputation. Challenges to Strategic Adaptation Despite its importance, strategic adaptation faces challenges: Organisational inertia – large firms with bureaucratic structures often resist change, making adaptation slower (Hannan & Freeman, 1984). Resource constraints – smaller firms may lack the financial or human resources to invest in adaptive strategies. Short-term pressures – shareholder demands for immediate returns can limit long-term adaptive investments (Porter & Kramer, 2011). Cultural resistance – employees accustomed to traditional practices may oppose change, undermining adaptation efforts. Practical Examples of Strategic Adaptation Netflix: Transition from DVD rentals to streaming and later to content production illustrates proactive adaptation to technological and consumer changes. Tesla: Demonstrates adaptive strategies by continuously integrating innovations in electric vehicles, renewable energy, and autonomous driving. Starbucks: Adapted by enhancing its digital ordering platforms and loyalty apps, ensuring customer engagement even during the pandemic (Forbes, 2020). Adaptation in strategic management is no longer optional but a necessity for survival and growth. By leveraging dynamic capabilities, fostering a learning-oriented culture, and embracing digital transformation, organisations can effectively adapt to environmental uncertainties. Firms that fail to adapt, however, risk obsolescence in an increasingly turbulent global landscape. Ultimately, strategic adaptation represents a mindset of proactive responsiveness, enabling organisations to balance stability with flexibility and sustain long-term competitiveness. References Argyris, C. & Schön, D. (1996) Organisational Learning II: Theory, Method, and Practice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Barney, J. & Hesterly, W. (2019) Strategic Management and Competitive Advantage. 6th edn. Harlow: Pearson. Benini, G., Nikou, S. & Calabretta, G. (2025) ‘Expanding organisational dynamic … Read more

Strategic Control and Evaluation: Ensuring Effective Strategy Execution

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Strategic control and evaluation are vital components of the strategic management process. Once a strategy has been formulated and implemented, organisations must ensure that it remains aligned with their objectives, competitive environment, and resource base (Hitt et al., 2021). Without effective control and evaluation mechanisms, even the most carefully formulated strategies may fail due to poor execution or lack of adaptation to changing circumstances. This article explores the significance of strategic control and evaluation, the role of Key Performance Indicators (KPIs), the application of the Balanced Scorecard (BSC), and the challenges of maintaining alignment between strategy and organisational performance. The Role of Strategic Control Strategic control refers to the process of monitoring the execution of strategies, assessing their outcomes, and making necessary adjustments (Wheelen & Hunger, 2020). Unlike operational control, which focuses on day-to-day efficiency, strategic control evaluates whether the overall strategy is effective in achieving long-term goals. According to Rothaermel (2020), the central purpose of strategic control is to ensure that strategy execution remains consistent with the organisation’s mission, vision, and competitive positioning. For example, in the airline industry, companies such as Ryanair constantly monitor fuel costs, regulatory changes, and customer satisfaction. If their cost leadership strategy is threatened by rising operational expenses, they may implement new efficiency measures or renegotiate supplier contracts to maintain their competitive edge. This illustrates how strategic control ensures that strategy adapts to environmental shifts. Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) One of the most commonly used tools in strategic evaluation is the establishment of Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). KPIs are quantifiable metrics that allow managers to measure progress toward objectives (Czerwińska & Pacana, 2024). Effective KPIs must be aligned with organisational strategy, measurable, and actionable. For instance, in a retail organisation, KPIs might include: Sales growth percentage (financial performance), Customer retention rate (customer satisfaction), Inventory turnover ratio (operational efficiency), and Employee engagement scores (organisational culture). KPIs not only provide insights into whether strategic goals are being achieved but also signal when corrective actions are necessary. However, as Chobitok and Verkush (2025) argue, KPIs must be carefully designed to avoid an overemphasis on short-term metrics that neglect long-term strategic objectives. The Balanced Scorecard Developed by Kaplan and Norton (1996), the Balanced Scorecard (BSC) remains one of the most influential frameworks for strategic evaluation. Unlike traditional financial metrics, the BSC expands the focus to include four perspectives: Financial perspective – assessing profitability, revenue growth, and cost management. Customer perspective – measuring satisfaction, retention, and brand loyalty. Internal processes perspective – evaluating innovation, production efficiency, and quality control. Learning and growth perspective – examining employee skills, organisational culture, and knowledge management. By incorporating these dimensions, the BSC ensures that organisations do not focus solely on financial outcomes but also on the drivers of long-term success (Vieira, 2025). For example, Apple uses a BSC approach by tracking not only sales of its devices but also customer satisfaction, employee innovation, and supply chain efficiency, ensuring its strategies remain sustainable. Strategic Evaluation Process Strategic evaluation generally follows a structured process (Johnson et al., 2017): Defining performance standards – identifying measurable targets based on strategic objectives. Measuring actual performance – collecting data through KPIs, surveys, and market analysis. Comparing results with objectives – evaluating deviations from expected performance. Taking corrective action – adjusting resources, revising strategy, or re-aligning objectives. An example can be seen in Tesla, which sets ambitious goals around innovation and market penetration. By comparing its actual sales and production volumes against strategic objectives, Tesla evaluates whether it is on track to achieve its vision of accelerating sustainable energy adoption. Deviations, such as supply chain disruptions, are addressed through corrective actions like investing in in-house battery production. Challenges in Strategic Control While strategic control is essential, organisations face several challenges: Information overload: Managers may be overwhelmed by excessive data, making it difficult to focus on critical indicators (Melikidze, 2025). Resistance to change: Employees may resist corrective actions if they perceive them as threats to existing routines. Short-termism: Overemphasis on quarterly financial KPIs may undermine long-term strategic objectives (Wakeanda & Obere, 2025). External uncertainty: Rapid environmental changes, such as economic downturns or technological disruptions, can render existing strategies obsolete. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, many firms discovered that their existing KPIs and evaluation frameworks were no longer adequate. Hospitality businesses had to adopt new measures focused on digital engagement and health safety rather than traditional occupancy rates. The Importance of Feedback and Learning Strategic control should not only be about monitoring but also about organisational learning. According to Argyris (1999), effective organisations engage in double-loop learning, where they do not only correct deviations from plans but also question whether the underlying assumptions of the strategy are still valid. For instance, Netflix initially focused on DVD rentals. Through continuous evaluation and learning, it recognised the shift towards streaming services, adjusting its business model accordingly. Today, its KPIs focus on subscriber growth, viewing hours, and content quality – all aligned with its evolving strategy. Integrating Technology in Strategic Evaluation The use of Business Intelligence (BI) systems and data analytics has transformed strategic control. Modern systems allow for real-time monitoring of KPIs, predictive analytics, and data visualisation dashboards (Chobitok & Verkush, 2025). For example, Amazon employs advanced analytics to evaluate customer behaviour, supply chain efficiency, and new product launches. By integrating AI-driven insights, it can adapt its strategy faster than competitors. Similarly, banks use the BSC integrated with digital dashboards to evaluate risk management, compliance, and customer satisfaction (Melikidze, 2025). Strategic control and evaluation are indispensable for ensuring that organisations remain aligned with their long-term objectives. Tools such as KPIs and the Balanced Scorecard provide structured frameworks to measure progress, identify deviations, and adapt to environmental changes. However, organisations must avoid pitfalls such as information overload, short-termism, and resistance to change. The future of strategic evaluation lies in leveraging technology, embracing organisational learning, and integrating financial and non-financial performance measures. By doing so, organisations can ensure that their strategies remain relevant, flexible, and effective in achieving sustainable success. References Argyris, C. (1999) … Read more

Strategy Implementation: Aligning Resources, Culture, and Leadership for Competitive Advantage

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Strategy implementation is the critical phase following formulation, where organisational plans are translated into action. While strategy formulation defines what an organisation wants to achieve, implementation determines whether those objectives will be realised. According to Rothaermel (2020), successful strategy implementation involves aligning resources, structures, and cultures with chosen objectives. However, implementation often proves more difficult than formulation, as it requires coordinated efforts across multiple layers of the organisation. The Importance of Strategy Implementation The gap between strategy formulation and execution has long been a challenge for organisations. Studies indicate that many firms fail not because they choose the wrong strategy, but because they are unable to implement it effectively (Hrebiniak, 2013). Implementation requires leadership commitment, clear communication, and resource allocation (Carreño, 2024). For example, Apple’s success with the iPhone launch was not solely due to its innovative design but also to its seamless execution across design, supply chain, and marketing teams. This highlights that execution excellence is as important as strategic intent. Aligning Organisational Structure with Strategy Organisational structure plays a crucial role in enabling or constraining strategy implementation. A rigid, hierarchical structure may hinder innovation and adaptability, while a decentralised, flexible structure supports responsiveness (Anthony & Dumbiri, 2025). For instance, when Google diversified into areas such as cloud services and artificial intelligence, it restructured under Alphabet Inc. to allow greater autonomy for different business units. This ensured alignment between strategy and organisational design. The choice of structure should be contingent upon the strategy. For example: A cost leadership strategy may require centralised control to achieve efficiency. A differentiation strategy may demand decentralisation to foster innovation and creativity. Leadership and Strategic Alignment Leadership is a vital determinant of implementation success. Leaders must not only communicate strategic objectives but also model behaviours consistent with them (Kotter, 2012). Strategic alignment refers to ensuring that all organisational activities, from resource allocation to employee performance, are directed towards strategic priorities (Carreño, 2024). An illustrative example is Tesla, where Elon Musk’s leadership has been pivotal in aligning employees and stakeholders with the mission of accelerating sustainable energy. Despite challenges, Tesla’s strategic goals are embedded in corporate culture, influencing decisions from product development to supply chain investments. The Role of Organisational Culture Organisational culture significantly influences strategy implementation. A culture that fosters collaboration, innovation, and accountability supports change, while resistance or misalignment can derail efforts (Permana & Schouten, 2025). For example, companies implementing digital transformation initiatives often fail if cultural barriers—such as employee resistance to new technologies—are not addressed (Sahl, 2025). A positive case is Southwest Airlines, whose culture of customer service and employee empowerment reinforces its low-cost strategy. Conversely, Nokia’s decline in the smartphone market is often attributed to cultural rigidity and poor adaptation to strategic shifts. Resource Allocation and Implementation Implementation requires adequate financial, human, and technological resources. Without proper allocation, strategies remain aspirational. As noted by Dumbiri and Anthony (2025), allocating resources in line with market trends ensures competitiveness. For example, Amazon has consistently reinvested profits into technology, logistics infrastructure, and cloud computing, enabling it to execute both cost leadership in retail and differentiation in cloud services. However, misallocation can undermine strategy. Many firms pursuing innovation fail because they underfund research and development, or spread resources too thin across competing priorities (Muzaffarovna & Bakhtiyarovna, 2025). Communication and Employee Engagement Effective communication ensures employees understand their roles in achieving strategic goals. Research suggests that employees who feel informed and engaged are more likely to contribute to successful implementation (Iqbal et al., 2025). For example, Unilever’s Sustainable Living Plan was effectively implemented by embedding sustainability goals into performance metrics and communicating progress transparently across the organisation. Employee engagement also reduces resistance to change. According to Kotter (2012), change initiatives are more successful when employees feel ownership over strategy. Techniques such as workshops, town halls, and feedback mechanisms are essential for creating alignment. Challenges in Strategy Implementation Despite its importance, strategy implementation faces common challenges: Resistance to change – Employees may resist new processes or technologies. Inadequate leadership support – Lack of visible commitment undermines credibility. Insufficient resources – Strategies fail if they are not supported financially. Cultural misalignment – Organisational values may conflict with strategic goals. Poor monitoring and evaluation – Without feedback loops, firms may fail to adjust. For example, General Motors’ failed Saturn brand was partly due to resource misallocation and cultural misfit between Saturn’s innovative ethos and GM’s traditional bureaucracy. Measuring Implementation Success Monitoring and evaluation are crucial for tracking implementation. Key Performance Indicators (KPIs), Balanced Scorecards, and performance dashboards are widely used tools (Kaplan & Norton, 2008). For example, Siemens employs a global scorecard to align financial and non-financial metrics with strategic objectives, ensuring accountability at every level. Continuous evaluation allows organisations to adapt to external changes. Firms operating in volatile markets, such as technology or healthcare, must embrace dynamic capabilities—the ability to reconfigure resources rapidly to remain competitive (Teece, 2014). Real-World Examples of Strategy Implementation Apple Inc. – Achieved success by aligning design, supply chain, and marketing in implementing its innovation strategy. Toyota – Implemented its lean production strategy globally by embedding efficiency and continuous improvement into culture and processes. Netflix – Transitioned from DVD rentals to streaming by restructuring operations, reallocating resources, and fostering a culture of agility. IBM – Successfully shifted towards consulting and cloud services by retraining employees and restructuring business units. Strategy implementation is a multidimensional process that requires leadership commitment, resource alignment, effective communication, and a supportive culture. While strategy formulation sets the direction, implementation determines whether success is achieved. Firms such as Apple, Amazon, and Toyota illustrate how well-executed implementation can generate sustainable competitive advantage. Conversely, failures like Nokia and GM’s Saturn brand demonstrate that poor execution can undermine even sound strategies. Ultimately, organisations must recognise that implementation is not a one-off task but an ongoing process, requiring monitoring, adaptability, and integration into the organisational fabric. By fostering alignment between strategy, structure, culture, and resources, firms can ensure that strategic plans translate into meaningful outcomes. References Anthony, O.O. & Dumbiri, A.F., 2025. Promoting … Read more

Strategy Formulation: Aligning Resources and Capabilities for Competitive Advantage

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Strategy formulation is a central process in strategic management, where organisations decide how to allocate their resources and capabilities to achieve long-term objectives. It involves identifying competitive positions, selecting strategic options, and aligning them with the organisation’s mission, vision, and goals. According to Grant (2019), strategy formulation provides the blueprint for competing effectively in dynamic markets, ensuring firms remain relevant and sustainable. This essay explores the concepts, levels, and methods of strategy formulation, using academic theories, real-world examples, and critical evaluation. It focuses on Porter’s generic strategies, corporate and business-level strategies, and the role of core competencies in creating sustainable competitive advantage. Foundations of Strategy Formulation The first step in strategy formulation is understanding the internal and external environments. The SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) is often used to align internal capabilities with external conditions (Wheelen & Hunger, 2020). For example, Tesla identifies its strengths in innovation and brand recognition, but must also respond to external threats such as increasing competition in the electric vehicle market (Zang et al., 2025). Strategy formulation also requires clarity of mission and vision. As Hitt et al. (2021) argue, an effective mission statement helps define an organisation’s competitive scope and guides strategic choice. For instance, Google’s mission—“to organise the world’s information”—provides a broad scope for strategies that include diversification into artificial intelligence and cloud computing. Porter’s Generic Strategies Michael Porter’s (1985) framework identifies three generic strategies: cost leadership, differentiation, and focus. Each provides a distinct pathway to competitive advantage. Cost Leadership This strategy seeks to become the lowest-cost producer in an industry. Firms following cost leadership achieve economies of scale, efficient production, and tight cost control. Aldi, for example, implements cost leadership by minimising operating costs, offering limited product lines, and leveraging supply chain efficiency (Barney & Hesterly, 2019). Differentiation Differentiation involves offering products or services perceived as unique, allowing firms to charge premium prices. Rolls-Royce differentiates through unmatched craftsmanship and prestige, creating a strong brand identity that justifies its high pricing (Gonzales, 2024). Similarly, Apple employs differentiation via design, innovation, and ecosystem integration. Focus Strategy The focus strategy targets a specific market niche. Firms may adopt either cost focus (serving a niche at the lowest cost) or differentiation focus (offering unique products to a niche market). For example, Innocent Drinks targets health-conscious consumers by differentiating with natural, sustainable ingredients (Alhakimi & Al-Ariqi, 2025). Although powerful, Porter warns against being “stuck in the middle”, where firms fail to achieve either low cost or differentiation, resulting in weak competitive positions (Porter, 1985). Business-Level vs Corporate-Level Strategy A distinction exists between business-level and corporate-level strategies. Business-Level Strategy: Determines how a firm competes in a particular industry or market segment. For instance, Samsung competes at the business level with both cost leadership (mass-market smartphones) and differentiation (flagship Galaxy devices). Corporate-Level Strategy: Involves decisions about the overall scope of the firm, such as diversification, mergers, acquisitions, or global expansion. Disney, for example, has diversified into film, theme parks, and streaming platforms, achieving synergy across its businesses (Wheelen & Hunger, 2020). Betchoo (2025) argues that corporate strategy formulation is increasingly tied to sustainability, requiring firms to integrate environmental, social, and governance (ESG) principles into their long-term plans. Role of Core Competencies The concept of core competencies was introduced by Prahalad and Hamel (1990) and remains critical in strategy formulation. Core competencies are the unique capabilities that allow a firm to deliver superior value. For example: IKEA’s core competence lies in efficient design and supply chain integration, allowing it to deliver affordable furniture globally. Amazon’s competence in logistics and digital platforms underpins both its e-commerce dominance and its diversification into cloud services. Core competencies must be rare, valuable, and difficult to imitate, aligning with the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm (Barney, 1991). This ensures sustained competitive advantage beyond temporary market trends. Contemporary Approaches to Strategy Formulation While Porter’s framework and the RBV remain influential, contemporary approaches highlight new factors: Dynamic Capabilities Firms must continually reconfigure resources in response to environmental changes. Teece (2014) emphasises that innovation and adaptability are now central to strategy formulation. Netflix demonstrates this by shifting from DVD rentals to online streaming, and now to content production. Blue Ocean Strategy Instead of competing in saturated markets, firms can create uncontested markets, or “blue oceans” (Kim & Mauborgne, 2015). For example, Cirque du Soleil created a new entertainment category by blending circus acts with theatre, avoiding direct competition with traditional circuses. Globalisation and Digitalisation Global competition and digital transformation demand flexible strategies. Firms like Huawei use global R&D hubs to adapt products to different markets, while Uber leverages digital platforms to scale globally. Challenges in Strategy Formulation Despite its importance, strategy formulation faces challenges: Uncertainty: Global crises such as COVID-19 showed how unpredictable environments can undermine long-term strategies (Cao, 2025). Over-diversification: Corporate strategies that spread resources too thinly may erode core competencies. For example, General Electric’s diversification led to financial strain before its restructuring. Cultural Resistance: Organisational culture may hinder strategy implementation, especially in firms resistant to change (Hitt et al., 2021). Effective formulation must therefore be flexible, evidence-based, and aligned with organisational culture and capabilities. In conclusion, strategy formulation is the backbone of strategic management, enabling firms to navigate competitive markets and achieve sustainable growth. By leveraging Porter’s generic strategies, distinguishing between business and corporate-level strategies, and focusing on core competencies, organisations can create robust competitive advantages. Contemporary perspectives, such as dynamic capabilities and blue ocean strategies, highlight the importance of adaptability and innovation in today’s volatile markets. Ultimately, successful strategy formulation requires a balance of analytical rigour and creative vision, ensuring strategies are both grounded in resources and responsive to external opportunities. Firms like Tesla, Apple, and Amazon illustrate how well-formulated strategies can reshape industries, while failures in strategic alignment highlight the risks of neglecting this critical process. References Barney, J. (1991) ‘Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage’, Journal of Management, 17(1), pp. 99–120. Barney, J.B. and Hesterly, W.S. (2019) Strategic Management and Competitive Advantage. 6th edn. Harlow: Pearson. Betchoo, N.K. (2025) … Read more

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