Mohammad T Islam (BSc, MBA, MEd)

Operations Management: Overview of Key Study Topics Within the Field

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Operations Management (OM) is a vital discipline within business and management studies that focuses on the efficient design, operation, and improvement of organisational processes. At its core, OM seeks to ensure that resources are utilised effectively to deliver goods and services that meet customer expectations in terms of quality, cost, flexibility, and speed. Two of the most prominent areas within this field are Supply Chain Management (SCM) and Quality Management (QM). This article provides an overview of these key topics, exploring their theoretical foundations, tools, and practical applications in modern organisations. 1.0 Supply Chain Management 1.1 Definition and Importance Supply Chain Management refers to the coordination and integration of activities involved in sourcing, procurement, production, and distribution, ensuring that goods and services flow smoothly from suppliers to end consumers (Christopher, 2016). The goal of SCM is to create value for customers while maintaining cost efficiency and building sustainable competitive advantage (Chopra & Meindl, 2019). The increasing globalisation of trade, rapid technological advancements, and rising consumer expectations have elevated the importance of SCM. Companies now compete not only on the basis of individual products but also on the efficiency and responsiveness of their supply chains. For example, Amazon’s success is attributed largely to its highly sophisticated logistics and distribution systems, which allow it to deliver products faster than many competitors. 1.2 Key Components of SCM Procurement and Sourcing: This involves selecting suppliers, negotiating contracts, and ensuring a steady flow of raw materials. Strategic supplier relationships can reduce costs, ensure quality, and foster innovation (Monczka et al., 2020). Inventory Management: Effective inventory management balances product availability with the cost of holding stock. Models such as Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) and Just-in-Time (JIT) inventory are commonly studied to understand how firms can minimise waste and avoid stockouts (Heizer et al., 2020). Logistics and Distribution: SCM also encompasses the transportation and warehousing of goods. The design of a distribution network directly impacts customer satisfaction by determining delivery speed, reliability, and cost efficiency (Rushton, Croucher & Baker, 2017). Information Flow: Real-time information sharing between supply chain partners enhances coordination and reduces uncertainty. Digital technologies such as blockchain and Internet of Things (IoT) devices are increasingly applied to improve transparency and traceability (Christopher, 2016). 1.3 Challenges in Supply Chain Management Despite advances, SCM faces numerous challenges. These include supply disruptions caused by geopolitical instability, pandemics such as COVID-19, and climate-related events. For instance, the COVID-19 pandemic exposed vulnerabilities in global supply chains, highlighting the risks of over-reliance on single sources and “just-in-time” systems (Ivanov & Dolgui, 2020). Furthermore, sustainability has become a pressing concern, as organisations face pressure from governments and consumers to reduce carbon emissions and adopt environmentally friendly practices (Seuring & Müller, 2008). 1.4 Future Trends in SCM Emerging trends in SCM include the use of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning to predict demand, optimise routes, and detect risks. The concept of circular supply chains, which emphasises recycling and reuse, is also gaining momentum in response to climate change and resource scarcity (Geissdoerfer et al., 2017). Moreover, resilient supply chains—those that can adapt quickly to disruptions—are now prioritised, combining flexibility, digital technologies, and risk management strategies. 2.0 Quality Management 2.1 Definition and Relevance Quality Management (QM) refers to the systematic processes and activities that ensure a product or service consistently meets customer requirements and industry standards (Oakland, 2014). Unlike quality control, which focuses on detecting defects, QM adopts a broader perspective by preventing defects, improving processes, and embedding quality into organisational culture. Quality has become a crucial source of competitive advantage, as customers increasingly demand reliable, safe, and sustainable products. Organisations that excel in quality often experience enhanced customer loyalty, reduced costs associated with rework, and stronger reputations in the marketplace (Evans & Lindsay, 2017). 2.2 Key Concepts in Quality Management Quality Control (QC): QC involves monitoring and inspecting products and processes to ensure they meet established standards. Tools such as statistical process control (SPC) charts are widely used to identify variations in processes (Montgomery, 2019). Quality Assurance (QA): QA takes a proactive approach, focusing on designing processes and systems that prevent defects before they occur. Standards such as ISO 9001 provide frameworks for establishing quality assurance systems (Hoyle, 2017). Continuous Improvement: Continuous improvement, or Kaizen, encourages organisations to make incremental changes that lead to long-term efficiency and quality gains. This philosophy is central to Lean Management and Total Quality Management (TQM) approaches (Oakland, 2014). Six Sigma: This data-driven methodology focuses on reducing process variation and defects by using statistical tools such as DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyse, Improve, Control). Companies like Motorola and General Electric have successfully implemented Six Sigma to save billions in operational costs (Antony, 2006). 2.3 Integration of Quality Management into Operations Effective quality management requires integration across the entire organisation. Employees at all levels must understand their role in ensuring quality, from frontline staff to top management. Total Quality Management (TQM) embodies this holistic approach by promoting a culture of quality, customer focus, and teamwork (Dale, Bamford & van der Wiele, 2016). Additionally, quality management is closely linked to supply chain performance. For example, working closely with suppliers to ensure raw material quality can reduce defects downstream and improve customer satisfaction. This alignment is evident in the automotive industry, where companies like Toyota have pioneered supplier development programmes to enhance overall quality (Liker, 2004). 2.4 Future of Quality Management The future of QM is increasingly tied to digital transformation. Technologies such as big data analytics, machine learning, and Internet of Things (IoT) devices enable real-time quality monitoring and predictive maintenance (Srinivasan, 2019). Furthermore, as sustainability becomes a global priority, quality management is expanding beyond product performance to include social responsibility, ethical sourcing, and environmental stewardship (Juran & Godfrey, 1999). 3.0 Integrating SCM and QM While SCM and QM are often studied separately, in practice they are deeply interconnected. A well-functioning supply chain cannot be achieved without a focus on quality, and high quality is difficult to maintain without efficient supply chain practices. For instance, Lean Six Sigma combines … Read more

Budgeting: From Traditional Methods to Modern Approaches

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Budgeting is a cornerstone of financial management and control within organisations. It involves creating a detailed financial plan to guide operations, allocate resources, and monitor performance over a defined period. While traditional budgeting focuses on estimating revenues, costs, and cash flows annually, modern approaches such as rolling forecasts and beyond budgeting have emerged to address the limitations of rigid frameworks in dynamic business environments (Golyagina & Valuckas, 2012). This article explores traditional and modern budgeting techniques, their advantages and drawbacks, and the evolving role of budgeting in organisational strategy. 1.0 Traditional Budgeting Traditional budgeting has been the dominant approach in organisations for decades. It typically involves preparing annual budgets that serve as a benchmark for financial control and performance evaluation. According to Drury (2018), traditional budgeting provides stability by setting targets for revenue, expenditure, and cash flow. However, traditional budgeting has also been criticised for being time-consuming, inflexible, and prone to gaming. Hansen, Otley, and Van der Stede (2003) argue that static budgets may encourage short-termism, as managers focus on meeting annual targets rather than pursuing long-term strategic goals. For example, in the public sector, incremental budgeting—where last year’s figures form the basis of the current year’s budget—often leads to inefficiencies as departments seek to “use up” budgets to secure future allocations (Rickards, 2006). 2.0 Flexible Budgeting Flexible budgeting adjusts financial plans according to changes in activity levels or external conditions. Unlike static budgets, flexible budgets provide organisations with a tool for variance analysis and more accurate performance evaluation. Retailers such as Tesco have embraced flexible budgeting to adapt operations to volatile demand. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Tesco shifted resources to support online sales and supply chain disruptions, demonstrating how flexible budgets enable agility in uncertain environments (Celestin, 2017). 3.0 Rolling Forecasts Rolling forecasts are a dynamic alternative to annual budgeting. They involve continuously updating financial forecasts (e.g., quarterly) to extend planning horizons. According to Henttu-Aho (2018), rolling forecasts help organisations become proactive rather than reactive, enabling decision-makers to anticipate market shifts. Research by Lorain (2010) shows that rolling forecasts are especially valuable in uncertain environments, such as the technology and airline industries, where demand and costs fluctuate significantly. For example, Ryanair employs rolling forecasts to adjust ticket pricing and fuel cost projections in response to fluctuating oil prices. 4.0 Beyond Budgeting The beyond budgeting movement, pioneered by Hope and Fraser (2003), challenges the relevance of traditional budgets altogether. Beyond budgeting advocates argue that organisations should replace budgets with decentralised decision-making, adaptive planning, and performance management systems. Bogsnes (2016) illustrates the successful adoption of beyond budgeting at Statoil (now Equinor), where the company abandoned fixed budgets in favour of rolling forecasts and relative performance benchmarks. This shift allowed managers to respond more effectively to changes in oil markets, fostering a culture of accountability and adaptability. Nonetheless, critics such as Rickards (2006) question whether beyond budgeting is feasible for all organisations, particularly smaller firms lacking advanced systems and data analytics capabilities. 5.0 Hybrid Approaches Recognising that no single method is perfect, many organisations adopt hybrid approaches that combine elements of traditional, flexible, and rolling budgets. For instance, Msiza, Obokoh, and Benedict (2022) highlight the use of rolling forecasts within beyond budgeting frameworks in public schools to improve resource allocation and accountability. Similarly, Liyanage and Gooneratne (2021) describe the concept of better budgeting, which seeks to improve existing systems through zero-based budgeting (ZBB), activity-based budgeting (ABB), and benchmarking. 6.0 Advantages and Limitations of Budgeting Approaches Approach Advantages Limitations Traditional Budgeting Stability, accountability, clear financial targets Inflexibility, time-consuming, encourages short-term focus Flexible Budgeting Adaptability to changes, better variance analysis Requires frequent monitoring and data availability Rolling Forecasts Continuous planning, long-term focus, agility Resource-intensive, may overwhelm smaller organisations Beyond Budgeting Decentralisation, adaptability, promotes innovation Difficult to implement, cultural resistance, high system cost Hybrid Approaches Balances stability and flexibility, tailored to organisation Complexity in integration, requires advanced systems   7.0 Budgeting in Practice: Industry Examples Retail Industry: Tesco’s flexible budgeting demonstrates how retailers manage fluctuating demand patterns. Energy Sector: Equinor’s adoption of beyond budgeting showcases adaptability in volatile oil markets (Bogsnes, 2016). Airlines: Ryanair uses rolling forecasts for dynamic pricing and fuel cost management. Public Sector: Incremental budgeting remains widespread, though rolling forecasts are increasingly used to improve efficiency (Msiza et al., 2022). Technology Firms: Companies like Google adopt rolling forecasts integrated with advanced analytics for long-term planning. These examples underscore how context matters when selecting budgeting methods, with factors such as industry volatility, organisational size, and digital capabilities shaping adoption. 8.0 Future of Budgeting The future of budgeting is likely to be shaped by digital transformation and sustainability goals. Advances in artificial intelligence, big data, and predictive analytics are already being integrated into budgeting processes (Ayvaz, Kaplan & Kuncan, 2020). Furthermore, sustainability reporting is influencing budgeting practices. Organisations are increasingly incorporating Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) metrics into budgets to align financial planning with broader corporate responsibility goals (Daniel et al., 2014). Budgeting remains an indispensable tool for organisational planning and control, but its forms are evolving. Traditional budgeting provides stability and accountability but lacks flexibility in turbulent environments. Flexible budgets and rolling forecasts offer adaptability and continuous planning, while the beyond budgeting movement challenges conventional approaches by promoting decentralisation and real-time adaptability. Companies such as Tesco and Equinor illustrate how flexible and beyond budgeting models enable resilience during crises, while public and private organisations alike are exploring hybrid approaches tailored to their contexts. As businesses confront greater uncertainty, digitalisation, and sustainability challenges, budgeting will continue to evolve, balancing stability with adaptability to ensure long-term success. References Ayvaz, E., Kaplan, K. & Kuncan, M. (2020). An integrated LSTM neural networks approach to sustainable balanced scorecard-based early warning system. IEEE Access, 8, pp.122–138. Bogsnes, B. (2016). Implementing Beyond Budgeting: Unlocking the Performance Potential. New Jersey: Wiley. Celestin, M. (2017). The effectiveness of beyond budgeting models: Can businesses abandon traditional budgeting? Brainae Journal of Business, Sciences and Technology. [Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/389920083] Daniel, C.V., Réka, C.I. & Ştefan, P. (2014). Traditional budgeting versus beyond budgeting: A … Read more

Management Accounting: Tools for Strategic Decision-Making

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Management Accounting plays a vital role in modern organisations by providing managers with timely, relevant, and forward-looking information that supports planning, control, and performance evaluation. Unlike financial accounting, which focuses on external reporting, management accounting is designed primarily for internal decision-making, equipping businesses with insights necessary for sustainable growth and competitiveness. 1.0 The Nature of Management Accounting Management accounting involves collecting, analysing, and interpreting both financial and non-financial data to aid managerial decision-making. Vaivio (1999) highlights that management accounting has evolved beyond purely financial measures, now incorporating customer satisfaction, employee performance, and sustainability indicators. This evolution reflects the importance of intangible assets in knowledge-driven economies, where factors such as brand value and innovation drive competitive advantage. Banerjee (2012) further argues that management accounting serves as the backbone of strategic planning, enabling firms to assess risks, forecast outcomes, and allocate resources effectively. This broader scope helps organisations address dynamic business challenges, from economic volatility to digital transformation. 2.0 Key Techniques in Management Accounting 2.1 Budgeting Budgeting provides a detailed financial plan that guides future operations. Traditional budgeting involves estimating revenues, costs, and cash flows over a specific period. However, modern approaches such as rolling forecasts and beyond budgeting models allow for more flexibility (Golyagina & Valuckas, 2012). For example, Tesco applies flexible budgeting to adapt its operations to fluctuating consumer demand. This enables it to reallocate resources quickly during periods of economic uncertainty, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. 2.2 Cost Analysis Cost analysis determines the cost structure of products and services, supporting pricing strategies and profitability assessments. Traditional methods such as standard costing have been supplemented by Activity-Based Costing (ABC), which allocates overheads based on actual activities. Melese, Blandin, and O’Keefe (2004) note that integrating ABC with the Balanced Scorecard provides a powerful framework for linking costs with strategic objectives. A practical case is Unilever, which has implemented ABC to understand production costs across diverse product lines. This has improved decision-making on whether to continue or discontinue certain products based on profitability analysis. 2.3 Variance Analysis Variance analysis compares actual results with planned outcomes to identify discrepancies. According to Efendi, Fauzi, and Putri (2025), variance analysis is essential for cost control and accountability, particularly in complex organisations with multiple business units. For instance, in hospital management, volume variance analysis helps evaluate whether patient service levels meet budget expectations (Vesty & Brooks, 2017). 2.4 Financial Forecasting Financial forecasting predicts future outcomes using historical data, industry trends, and statistical models. In small and medium enterprises (SMEs), effective forecasting enables better cash flow management and reduces bankruptcy risk (Okeke, Bakare & Achumie, 2024). Techniques range from regression analysis to advanced AI-driven forecasting models such as LSTM neural networks (Ayvaz, Kaplan & Kuncan, 2020). Airbus, for instance, relies heavily on financial forecasting when planning large-scale aircraft production, given the long lead times and high capital investments involved. 3.0 Strategic Role of Management Accounting 3.1 Performance Measurement and Evaluation Management accounting enhances organisational performance measurement through frameworks like the Balanced Scorecard (Kaplan & Norton). This tool integrates financial and non-financial indicators across four perspectives: financial, customer, internal processes, and learning and growth. Nielsen (2023) demonstrates how combining the Balanced Scorecard with time-driven activity-based costing (TD-ABC) offers richer insights into cost drivers and performance outcomes. British Airways, for example, has adopted the Balanced Scorecard to align its operational metrics—such as on-time arrivals and customer satisfaction—with broader financial goals. 3.2 Strategic Cost Management Strategic cost management integrates cost analysis with organisational strategy. Chenhall and Langfield-Smith (1998) reveal that aligning management accounting techniques such as benchmarking and ABC with strategic priorities improves competitiveness. In the automotive sector, Toyota uses lean cost management, combining variance analysis and activity-based costing to reduce waste and improve operational efficiency. 3.3 Business Analytics Integration Recent research highlights the growing integration of business analytics into management accounting (Nielsen, 2015). Predictive analytics combined with traditional budgeting and forecasting provides organisations with early warning systems for financial risks (Ayvaz et al., 2020). Banks, for instance, employ rolling forecasts supported by analytics tools to predict customer defaults and manage credit risks more proactively (Bjørnenak, 2013). 4.0 Examples Across Industries Food and Drinks Industry: Abdel-Kader and Luther (2006) found that budgeting remains a central management accounting practice in the UK’s food and drinks sector, but firms are increasingly exploring Balanced Scorecards for holistic performance evaluation. Hospitality Sector: Pavlatos and Paggios (2008) report that Greek hotels use budgeting, cost control, and Balanced Scorecards to improve profitability while maintaining service quality. Public Sector: Melese et al. (2004) highlight the adoption of management accounting tools in government organisations, integrating ABC and Balanced Scorecards to improve transparency and accountability. These examples illustrate the adaptability of management accounting techniques across industries and sectors. 5.0 Challenges and Future Directions Despite its benefits, management accounting faces several challenges: Implementation resistance: Employees may resist new accounting systems due to training costs or perceived complexity. Relevance: Traditional budgeting is criticised for being inflexible in volatile environments (Golyagina & Valuckas, 2012). Data overload: With the growth of big data, management accountants must filter vast amounts of information to extract actionable insights (Ferzizi, 2021). Future directions suggest greater reliance on digital technologies such as AI, machine learning, and blockchain to enhance accuracy and real-time decision-making. Furthermore, the integration of sustainability metrics into management accounting will become increasingly significant as businesses respond to environmental and social governance (ESG) demands. Management Accounting is an essential discipline for modern business strategy. Through techniques such as budgeting, cost analysis, variance analysis, and financial forecasting, it equips managers with tools to plan, control, and evaluate operations. Its strategic role, particularly through frameworks like the Balanced Scorecard and the integration of business analytics, ensures that organisations can remain competitive in complex environments. By linking financial and non-financial measures, management accounting provides a decision-support framework that fosters efficiency, innovation, and long-term value creation. From SMEs to global multinationals, and across both private and public sectors, management accounting continues to evolve as an indispensable tool for organisational success. References Abdel-Kader, M. & Luther, R. (2006). Management accounting … Read more

Financial Management: Overview of Key Study Topics Within the Field

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Financial Management plays a central role in the success and sustainability of modern organisations. It encompasses the planning, organisation, control, and monitoring of financial resources to achieve corporate objectives and maximise shareholder wealth. Within this broad discipline, three major areas are often studied in depth: Financial Accounting, Management Accounting, and Corporate Finance. Each area contributes uniquely to the field, shaping both internal decision-making and external reporting practices. 1.0 Financial Accounting Financial Accounting deals with the systematic recording, summarising, and reporting of an organisation’s financial transactions. It ensures that financial information is presented accurately in compliance with established standards such as International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) and Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP). According to Shah (2013), the primary purpose of financial accounting is to prepare financial statements, including the balance sheet, income statement, and cash flow statement, which communicate a company’s financial health to external stakeholders such as investors, regulators, and creditors. Transparency and accountability are essential, as inaccurate reporting can undermine investor confidence and lead to financial scandals, as seen in the cases of Enron and WorldCom (Bushman & Smith, 2001). Financial accounting also provides the foundation for corporate governance by ensuring reliable financial disclosures. Research by Sloan (2001) highlights the importance of accounting information in monitoring managerial performance and reducing information asymmetry between managers and shareholders. A practical example can be found in publicly listed companies on the London Stock Exchange, where adherence to IFRS ensures comparability and investor trust. Companies such as Barclays PLC or BP publish audited annual reports that serve not only as compliance documents but also as communication tools for investors and analysts. Thus, financial accounting underpins the credibility of financial markets by providing standardised information essential for investment and lending decisions. 2.0 Management Accounting While financial accounting primarily addresses external reporting, Management Accounting focuses on internal decision-making. It provides managers with timely, relevant, and forward-looking information to plan, control, and evaluate organisational activities. Vaivio (1999) emphasises that management accounting is not limited to financial measures but increasingly incorporates non-financial metrics, such as customer satisfaction, employee performance, and sustainability indicators. This shift reflects the evolving nature of competitive business environments where intangible assets play a critical role. Key techniques in management accounting include: Budgeting: Developing detailed financial plans for future operations. Cost analysis: Determining the cost structure of products and services to support pricing and profitability decisions. Variance analysis: Identifying differences between planned and actual performance. Financial forecasting: Predicting future financial outcomes to guide strategic choices. Banerjee (2012) notes that management accounting serves as the backbone of strategic planning by equipping managers with tools to evaluate scenarios, allocate resources, and optimise operations. For instance, companies like Unilever and Tesco use activity-based costing (ABC) to allocate overhead costs more accurately, thereby improving profitability analysis. Moreover, management accounting enhances performance evaluation. Techniques such as the Balanced Scorecard, introduced by Kaplan and Norton, integrate financial and non-financial measures to assess overall organisational effectiveness (Melicher & Norton, 2013). In essence, management accounting provides the decision-support framework required for businesses to adapt to changing environments and maintain competitiveness. 3.0 Corporate Finance Corporate Finance addresses the financial decisions that corporations must make to maximise shareholder value. It is concerned with three core areas: Investment decisions (capital budgeting) – determining which projects or assets to invest in. Financing decisions – choosing the optimal mix of debt and equity to fund operations. Dividend policy – deciding how much profit should be retained versus distributed to shareholders. As Brealey, Myers, and Allen (2014) outline in Principles of Corporate Finance, the overarching goal of corporate finance is value maximisation. This involves balancing risk and return when allocating resources. A key concept is capital structure. Theories such as the Modigliani-Miller theorem argue that, under perfect market conditions, the value of a firm is unaffected by its financing choices. However, in practice, factors like taxation, bankruptcy costs, and agency conflicts make financing decisions critical (Jensen & Smith, 2006). Corporate finance also covers mergers and acquisitions (M&A), where strategic decisions about combining or acquiring firms can reshape entire industries. For example, the Vodafone–Mannesmann merger in 2000, valued at over €180 billion, illustrates how corporate finance principles influence global business landscapes (Arnold & Lewis, 2019). Another crucial area is risk management. Companies employ financial derivatives such as futures, options, and swaps to hedge against risks associated with interest rates, foreign exchange, or commodity prices (Keown, 2004). Multinational firms like BP and Airbus regularly use such instruments to stabilise cash flows in volatile markets. Corporate finance extends beyond private firms. Government bodies also apply these principles when issuing bonds or financing infrastructure projects, highlighting its wide applicability across economic sectors. Financial Management integrates the disciplines of Financial Accounting, Management Accounting, and Corporate Finance to provide a comprehensive framework for managing financial resources effectively. Financial accounting ensures accountability and transparency for external stakeholders, while management accounting supports strategic decision-making and operational efficiency. Corporate finance, on the other hand, focuses on maximising shareholder value through informed investment, financing, and risk management strategies. Together, these fields form the bedrock of modern financial practice. Whether ensuring regulatory compliance, improving internal efficiency, or enhancing shareholder returns, financial management remains a critical discipline in both academic study and practical application. Its importance continues to grow in an increasingly globalised and competitive business environment, making it an indispensable area of knowledge for aspiring business leaders and finance professionals. References Arnold, G. & Lewis, D. (2019). Corporate Financial Management. 6th ed. Harlow: Pearson. [Available at: https://miemagazine.com/sample/Management/MG501-600/MG569/sample-Corporate%20Financial%20Management%206th%206E%20Glen%20Arnold.pdf] Banerjee, B. (2012). Financial Policy and Management Accounting. 2nd ed. New Delhi: PHI Learning. Brealey, R.A., Myers, S.C. & Allen, F. (2014). Principles of Corporate Finance. 11th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Bushman, R.M. & Smith, A.J. (2001). Financial accounting information and corporate governance. Journal of Accounting and Economics, 32(1–3), pp. 237–333. [https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm?abstractid=253302] Jensen, M.C. & Smith, C.W. (2006). The Theory of Corporate Finance: A Historical Overview. New York: McGraw-Hill. Keown, A.J. (2004). Foundations of Finance: The Logic and Practice of Financial Management. 4th ed. New Jersey: Pearson. Melicher, R.W. & Norton, … Read more

Change Readiness Assessment: Evaluating Organisational Capacity for Transformation

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Organisations today face constant technological, economic, and cultural disruptions. To survive and thrive, they must adapt rapidly and effectively. Yet research consistently shows that most change initiatives fail, with estimates suggesting that up to 70% of organisational change efforts do not achieve their intended outcomes (Kotter, 2012). A key reason for this high failure rate is inadequate assessment of change readiness—the extent to which an organisation’s people, systems, and structures are prepared to adopt and sustain new ways of working. A Change Readiness Assessment (CRA) provides a structured way to evaluate the organisation’s preparedness before initiating a transformation. By examining dimensions such as leadership alignment, cultural openness, and resource allocation, organisations can identify potential barriers early and design interventions to increase the likelihood of success (Cameron & Green, 2015). This article explores the concept of CRA, its theoretical underpinnings, practical applications, and its critical role in organisational success. 1.0 Defining Change Readiness Change readiness refers to the collective willingness and capacity of an organisation to implement and sustain change initiatives. Holt et al. (2007) define it as a shared resolve of members to implement change and a belief in their collective ability to do so. It is not simply about whether individuals are open to change, but whether the entire system—people, culture, leadership, and resources—is aligned and capable of supporting the transformation. According to Vakola (2013), readiness must be understood at multiple levels: individual, team, and organisational. Employees may resist change if they lack skills or trust in leadership, while organisations may struggle if they lack resources, infrastructure, or strategic alignment. Thus, readiness is both a psychological state (beliefs and attitudes) and a structural condition (processes, resources, and leadership). 2.0 Dimensions of Change Readiness A comprehensive Change Readiness Assessment typically evaluates several interrelated dimensions: 2.1 Leadership Alignment Leadership plays a pivotal role in change success. Leaders must not only endorse the change but also model the desired behaviours and provide consistent communication (Holt et al., 2010). Misalignment among top leaders can send mixed signals, leading to confusion and resistance. Research shows that trustful and unified leadership is a key determinant of successful change implementation (Tasleem et al., 2023). Example: In the Abu Dhabi Police, Al Shamsi (2025) found that technological transformation efforts were hindered when leadership did not present a consistent vision. Through readiness assessments, leadership gaps were identified and addressed, enabling more effective digital adoption. 2.2 Cultural Openness and Organisational Climate An organisation’s culture—its values, norms, and collective behaviours—can either facilitate or obstruct change. A culture that supports openness, collaboration, and innovation is more likely to embrace change (Rusly, Corner & Sun, 2012). Conversely, rigid, risk-averse cultures often resist transformation (Vakola, 2013). According to Suwaryo et al. (2016), organisational commitment and a culture of trust are significant predictors of readiness. Similarly, Guerrero and Kim (2013) highlight that cultural competence and inclusivity are essential for organisations undergoing demographic or technological changes. Example: A multinational healthcare organisation studied by Caldwell, Chatman and O’Reilly (2008) demonstrated that cultural alignment was crucial for successfully implementing strategic reforms. Where staff felt alienated, resistance grew; where culture supported learning and innovation, change efforts were more sustainable. 2.3 Resource Allocation and Infrastructure Even if employees and leaders are motivated, change initiatives often fail due to insufficient resources—financial, technological, or human (Benzer et al., 2017). Effective readiness assessments evaluate whether the organisation has the capacity to allocate time, funds, and skilled personnel to support change without jeopardising ongoing operations. As Willis et al. (2016) observe in healthcare settings, aligning resources with strategic priorities is vital to sustaining cultural and procedural change. Without appropriate investment, employees may perceive change efforts as unrealistic or tokenistic, undermining trust and motivation. 2.4 Employee Readiness and Capability At the individual level, readiness involves an employee’s belief in the necessity of change, confidence in their ability to implement it, and perception of organisational support (Holt et al., 2007). Training, communication, and involvement in decision-making all increase readiness (Choi & Ruona, 2011). Example: Al Shamsi (2025) found that many officers within the Abu Dhabi Police lacked adequate training to use new digital platforms, which initially led to resistance. By identifying this gap early through a readiness assessment, the organisation was able to design targeted capacity-building programmes that improved adoption rates. 3.0 Theoretical Foundations Several frameworks inform the practice of readiness assessments: Armenakis and Harris’s (2002) model identifies five key components of readiness: discrepancy (need for change), appropriateness, efficacy, principal support, and personal valence. Holt et al.’s (2007) readiness scale operationalises readiness across content, process, context, and individuals, making it a widely used diagnostic tool in both research and practice. Denison and Hooijberg (2012) argue that change readiness depends heavily on aligning organisational culture with strategy, highlighting adaptability, involvement, and mission clarity as crucial cultural dimensions. These frameworks emphasise that readiness is not a static condition but a dynamic capability that can be strengthened through deliberate action. 4.0 Practical Applications of Change Readiness Assessments 4.1 Early Warning System Readiness assessments act as diagnostic tools that highlight potential barriers before they derail transformation. By identifying gaps in skills, leadership support, or resource availability, organisations can mitigate risks and design tailored interventions (Miake-Lye et al., 2020). 4.2 Guiding Interventions The insights from readiness assessments inform change management strategies. For instance, if cultural resistance is detected, leaders may need to implement communication campaigns, workshops, or participatory decision-making processes to build buy-in (Tasleem et al., 2023). 4.3 Enhancing Employee Engagement Assessments can uncover employees’ emotional readiness for change, which is often overlooked. By addressing fears, clarifying expectations, and recognising contributions, organisations can foster commitment and motivation (Choi & Ruona, 2011). 4.4 Case Example – Abu Dhabi Police Al Shamsi (2025) provides a practical example where the Abu Dhabi Police used readiness assessments during a digital transformation initiative. The assessment revealed training gaps and cultural barriers that could have undermined the project. By addressing these proactively through training and leadership development, the organisation improved adoption and reduced resistance. 5.0 Challenges in Conducting Readiness Assessments Despite their value, CRAs face … Read more

Stakeholder Analysis and Engagement: Key Strategies for Change Management

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Stakeholder analysis and engagement are critical to the success of organisational change initiatives. Stakeholders are individuals or groups with a vested interest in, or influence over, a project, programme, or transformation (Freeman, 1984). Their perceptions, expectations, and levels of support or resistance significantly affect outcomes. By systematically analysing stakeholders, managers can identify power dynamics, interests, and potential areas of resistance, enabling the design of tailored strategies to foster alignment. Equally important, engaging stakeholders through inclusive participation, co-design, and communication builds legitimacy, ownership, and commitment to change. This article examines theories, practices, and real-world applications of stakeholder analysis and engagement, with particular reference to healthcare digitalisation and corporate transformation. Stakeholder Analysis: Frameworks and Tools Stakeholder analysis involves identifying, categorising, and prioritising stakeholders. A widely cited model is the power-interest matrix, which maps stakeholders by their influence over, and interest in, a change initiative (Cameron and Green, 2015). Those with high power and high interest must be engaged closely, while those with low power and low interest may require minimal attention. Mitchell, Agle and Wood (1997) developed the salience model, which evaluates stakeholders based on power, legitimacy, and urgency. This helps organisations prioritise which stakeholders to address first, especially under resource constraints. Similarly, Scholes and Clutterbuck (1998) highlight the importance of identifying opinion leaders within stakeholder networks, as these actors can either accelerate or block acceptance of change. In corporate practice, Unilever’s Sustainable Living Plan demonstrated how structured stakeholder mapping across regulators, investors, employees, and NGOs enabled the company to balance conflicting demands while securing broad legitimacy (Unilever, 2019). By anticipating stakeholder concerns, Unilever avoided reputational risks and embedded sustainability within its business model. Stakeholder Engagement: From Communication to Co-Creation Stakeholder engagement extends beyond consultation to include co-design and co-creation. Traditional approaches often relied on one-way communication, where leaders disseminated information to stakeholders. However, contemporary perspectives stress dialogue, participation, and empowerment (Greenhalgh et al., 2016). Engagement is now seen as a relational process where stakeholders co-create value, knowledge, and solutions. Recent scholarship emphasises healthcare digitalisation as a prime context for stakeholder engagement. For example, Laurisz et al. (2023) found that involving clinicians, patients, and managers in co-creating digital services under the “Healthcare 4.0” paradigm led to greater adoption rates and sustainability. Similarly, Wentzel, Van Limburg and Karreman (2012) showed that co-creation in antibiotic stewardship programmes increased compliance and reduced resistance from medical staff. Corporate examples further illustrate this. Microsoft’s transformation under Satya Nadella involved engaging employees as change partners, not just recipients. By promoting a growth mindset and inclusive dialogue, the company overcame cultural resistance and achieved sustained performance gains (Takahashi and Takahashi, 2022). Stakeholder Engagement in Healthcare: Co-Creation in Action Healthcare is increasingly shaped by multi-stakeholder ecosystems where patients, providers, regulators, and technology companies intersect. Engagement is essential to navigate this complexity. Claessens et al. (2022) proposed a co-creation roadmap for sustainable healthcare quality, highlighting the need for early involvement of clinicians to avoid implementation failures. Similarly, Tončinić et al. (2020) evaluated digital platforms enabling patients, clinicians, and researchers to co-design healthcare innovations, demonstrating enhanced usability and acceptance. Digital transformation initiatives often fail when frontline clinicians feel excluded. Garmann-Johnsen, Helmersen and Eikebrokk (2018) showed that web 2.0 tools enabling staff contributions fostered ownership of digital change processes. This is consistent with Janamian and Crossland (2016), who developed a framework for value co-creation in primary care, stressing patient inclusion in service design. Beyond adoption, engagement fosters trust. In vaccine development and distribution, engaging communities through transparent dialogue reduced hesitancy and built public trust in science (Best, Moffett and McAdam, 2019). This example shows that co-production of legitimacy is as important as technical success. Corporate Transformation and Stakeholder Legitimacy In the corporate sector, stakeholder engagement enhances legitimacy during major transformations. Unilever, as noted, engaged NGOs and consumers in shaping its sustainability strategy. Similarly, Schiavone, Leone and Sorrentino (2020) demonstrated that co-creation in healthcare networks improved service experiences and stakeholder satisfaction. By analogy, corporations engaging customers in product innovation co-create shared value and reduce resistance. Large-scale digital business models in healthcare and beyond require engaging multiple stakeholders simultaneously. Schiavone, Mancini and Leone (2021) described how ridesharing-based healthcare models required alignment between patients, regulators, and service providers to function effectively. Without active engagement, conflicting interests could stall innovation. Challenges and Limitations While beneficial, stakeholder engagement poses challenges. First, it can be time-consuming and resource-intensive (Greenhalgh et al., 2016). Achieving consensus among diverse stakeholders may delay implementation. Second, power imbalances can marginalise certain voices, particularly patients in healthcare or lower-level employees in corporations (Aflaki and Lindh, 2023). To mitigate this, managers must ensure equitable participation mechanisms. Third, engagement without genuine influence risks tokenism. Stakeholders may feel disillusioned if their input does not affect outcomes (Carlini et al., 2024). Therefore, transparency about the scope of influence is vital. Finally, engagement must adapt to cultural contexts. What works in a European healthcare system may not translate directly to Asian or African contexts due to differing stakeholder expectations and power structures (Nudurupati et al., 2015). Effective stakeholder analysis and engagement are indispensable for change success. By mapping power, interest, and salience, managers can anticipate resistance and design responsive strategies. By moving from consultation to co-creation, organisations foster trust, legitimacy, and adoption. Evidence from healthcare digitalisation demonstrates how engaging clinicians, patients, and policymakers increases sustainability, while corporate cases such as Unilever illustrate the strategic value of inclusive engagement in building legitimacy. Nevertheless, challenges such as resource constraints, power imbalances, and risks of tokenism require careful management. Ultimately, stakeholder engagement is not just a management tool but a governance imperative for sustainable transformation in both healthcare and corporate contexts. References Aflaki, I.N. and Lindh, M. (2023). Empowering first-line managers as change leaders towards co-creation culture: the role of facilitated sensemaking. Public Money & Management. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540962.2021.2007636. Best, B., Moffett, S. and McAdam, R. (2019). Stakeholder salience in public sector value co-creation. Public Management Review, 21(11), pp.1595–1615. Cameron, E. and Green, M. (2015). Making Sense of Change Management. 4th ed. Kogan Page. Carlini, J., Muir, R. and McLaren-Kennedy, A. (2024). Transforming health-care … Read more

Home Schooling in the UK for Key Stage 1 Children

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Home schooling, also known as elective home education (EHE), has become an increasingly significant aspect of education policy and practice in the United Kingdom. While traditionally, children aged 5 to 7 years (Key Stage 1) have attended formal schools, growing numbers of parents are opting to educate their children at home. This trend has been accelerated by concerns over school environments, flexibility in learning, and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic (MacRae, 2025). This article explores home schooling in the UK with specific reference to Key Stage 1 children, examining the legal framework, pedagogical approaches, benefits, challenges, and implications for child development. 1.0 Legal and Policy Framework In the UK, parents have the legal right to educate their children at home under the Education Act 1996, provided they deliver an education that is “suitable to the age, ability, and aptitude” of the child (Department for Education, 2019). Unlike in some countries, parents do not need formal teaching qualifications, and children are not required to follow the National Curriculum. Local authorities can make informal enquiries if there are concerns about suitability, but oversight remains relatively limited (Hopkinson, 2024). This flexibility attracts parents who wish to tailor education to their child’s learning style, particularly during early years where developmental differences are pronounced. 2.0 Home Schooling Pedagogies for Key Stage 1 Home schooling at Key Stage 1 typically blends formal instruction with play-based learning, reflecting child development theories such as Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and Vygotsky’s emphasis on social interaction. Popular approaches include: Structured curricula: Parents purchase or download curricula aligned with Key Stage 1 standards, ensuring coverage of literacy, numeracy, and science. Montessori methods: Hands-on learning with child-led exploration (Isaacs, 2018). Unschooling: Child-driven learning where interests dictate study topics. Blended learning: Use of online platforms such as BBC Bitesize, Oak National Academy, and phonics apps alongside traditional activities (Van Sluijs et al., 2025). For instance, parents might teach phonics through daily reading sessions while reinforcing numeracy using games and household activities like cooking or shopping. 3.0 Benefits of Home Schooling for Key Stage 1 3.1 Individualised Learning One of the most cited advantages of home schooling is its capacity for personalisation. Key Stage 1 children develop literacy and numeracy skills at varying paces. Home schooling enables parents to adjust lesson speed, revisit topics, and provide one-to-one attention (Hutton, 2025). 3.2 Flexibility and Family Bonding Home education allows integration of learning into daily routines. Educational visits to museums, parks, and libraries enhance experiential learning. Parents also report stronger family bonds (Kunzman & Gaither, 2020). 3.3 Addressing Special Educational Needs (SEN) For children with SEN, home schooling can provide tailored support without the constraints of standard classroom teaching (All Party Parliamentary Group on Home Education, 2021). 3.4 Reduced Stress and Bullying Key Stage 1 can be a vulnerable stage for children. Home schooling eliminates school-related anxieties such as bullying, helping children feel safe and confident (Ray, 2017). 4.0 Challenges of Home Schooling 4.1 Socialisation Concerns A common critique of home schooling is limited peer interaction. Critics argue that children miss opportunities to develop teamwork, resilience, and conflict management skills inherent in school environments (DfE, 2019). Parents often counter this by joining home education networks or local clubs. 4.2 Parental Burden Teaching Key Stage 1 requires time, energy, and sometimes financial investment in resources. Parents balancing employment may struggle to maintain consistent learning environments (MacRae, 2025). 4.3 Access to Specialist Resources Schools provide structured support such as speech therapy or SEN coordinators, which may not be as easily accessible at home (Moody et al., 2025). 4.4 Regulatory Oversight The absence of compulsory inspections raises questions about quality and safeguarding. A 2021 parliamentary report noted concerns about children potentially receiving inadequate education or being “invisible” to authorities (APPG, 2021). 5.0 Case Studies and Examples 5.1 The COVID-19 Pandemic During the pandemic, all UK children experienced home-based learning. Research shows that parents of Key Stage 1 pupils valued flexibility but also highlighted challenges in maintaining attention spans (Hoben et al., 2025). 5.2 Community Support Networks Organisations such as Education Otherwise and local home-education co-operatives provide group lessons, sports, and social opportunities. For example, in London, home-educated Key Stage 1 children participate in weekly science workshops and group phonics lessons (Ray, 2017). 5.3 Higher Education Pathways Studies suggest that home-educated children can perform as well as or better than schooled peers in later education stages, provided early Key Stage foundations are secure (Kunzman & Gaither, 2020). 6.0 Comparative Perspectives In countries like the United States and Canada, home schooling is highly regulated, with parents required to submit curricula and undergo annual assessments (Hutton, 2025). In contrast, the UK’s relatively light-touch approach gives families greater freedom but has generated debate about accountability (DfE, 2019). 7.0 The Role of Technology Digital platforms have transformed home schooling. Tools such as phonics games, online maths platforms, and adaptive literacy programmes help Key Stage 1 children engage interactively. Research indicates that combining screen-based learning with hands-on activities yields stronger outcomes (Van Sluijs et al., 2025). Home schooling in the UK for Key Stage 1 children represents both opportunities and challenges. Its strengths lie in personalised learning, flexibility, and emotional security, particularly for children with special needs or those experiencing difficulties in mainstream schools. However, concerns about socialisation, resource access, and oversight remain pressing. As numbers of home-educated children rise, especially post-pandemic, policy debates are likely to intensify. For families, successful outcomes depend on balancing structured curricula with opportunities for peer interaction and enrichment, ensuring that children receive not just an academic education but also the social and emotional grounding essential for lifelong learning. References All Party Parliamentary Group on Home Education (2021). Inquiry into Home Education. APPG. Department for Education (DfE) (2019). Elective Home Education: Departmental Guidance for Parents. London: DfE. Hopkinson, L. (2024). Detecting Hypoglycemia in the Hospital by Continuous Glucose Monitoring. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses. Hoben, M., Ubell, A., Maxwell, C.J., Allana, S. & Doupe, M. (2025). The impact of day programmes on individuals living with dementia and their … Read more

The ADKAR Model: A Framework for Individual-Centred Change

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In today’s dynamic organisational landscape, effective change management remains a central challenge for leaders. Traditional models such as Lewin’s unfreeze–change–refreeze and Kotter’s 8-Step Process primarily emphasise organisational structures and leadership actions. However, Jeff Hiatt (2006) introduced the ADKAR model, which shifts the focus from organisational systems to the individual’s experience of change. This model proposes that transformation only succeeds when individuals transition effectively through five stages: Awareness, Desire, Knowledge, Ability, and Reinforcement (Hiatt & Creasey, 2012). This article critically explores the ADKAR model, highlighting its practical applications, strengths, and limitations. Contemporary examples from healthcare, higher education, and IT system rollouts illustrate its relevance, while scholarly perspectives examine its enduring contribution to change management theory and practice. 1.0 Awareness of the Need for Change The first stage of ADKAR emphasises the necessity of creating awareness of why change is required. Without understanding the rationale, employees are likely to resist (Hiatt, 2006). Awareness is built through transparent communication and linking change to organisational survival or improvement. For example, in healthcare settings, Hopkinson (2024) reported that applying ADKAR principles to continuous glucose monitoring adoption helped clinicians understand the urgency of technological change in improving patient safety. Similarly, in IT rollouts, awareness campaigns clarify how new systems enhance efficiency, reducing scepticism among staff (Hiatt & Creasey, 2012). Creating awareness ensures employees are not only informed but also convinced that change is necessary, laying the foundation for subsequent adoption. 2.0 Desire to Support the Change Awareness alone is insufficient; individuals must develop desire to engage with and support the change. This stage acknowledges the emotional dimension of transformation. Leaders must connect change initiatives to personal motivators such as career growth, recognition, or alignment with values. Memana (2025) highlighted that ADKAR aligns with ethical and participatory approaches, which enhance employee motivation by fostering inclusivity and respect. In higher education, case studies show that when faculty perceive change as supporting student success and institutional reputation, they are more likely to commit actively (Kezar & Eckel, 2002). By addressing intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, the desire stage transforms passive awareness into active commitment. 3.0 Knowledge of How to Change Even motivated employees cannot change without the knowledge of what to do differently. The third stage involves providing training, resources, and guidance to ensure employees understand processes, systems, and skills required. For example, in enterprise resource planning (ERP) rollouts, organisations often fail when employees lack knowledge of system functionalities (Somers & Nelson, 2001). ADKAR addresses this gap by emphasising structured training programmes tailored to diverse learning styles. In academic contexts, knowledge-building occurs through workshops and peer learning, enabling cultural transformations such as inclusive teaching practices (Kezar, 2014). Knowledge provision bridges the gap between motivation and action. 4.0 Ability to Implement Behaviours While knowledge is critical, employees must also possess the ability to apply it in practice. This stage recognises that capability requires experience, resources, and feedback. Common barriers include lack of confidence, inadequate support, or restrictive organisational structures. In healthcare reforms, Dube et al. (2025) observed that training medical staff in competency frameworks was ineffective without opportunities for practice and feedback. Similarly, IT transitions often stall when employees are denied sufficient time to adapt. ADKAR emphasises mentoring, coaching, and incremental practice to ensure knowledge translates into consistent behaviour. Ability reflects the moment when change becomes operational reality. 5.0 Reinforcement to Sustain Outcomes The final stage of ADKAR underscores the importance of reinforcement to prevent regression. Reinforcement mechanisms include recognition, rewards, cultural embedding, and continuous monitoring. Hiatt and Creasey (2012) note that reinforcement sustains behavioural change by making it part of organisational norms. For example, in higher education, reinforcement occurs when performance evaluations align with new pedagogical standards. In IT system rollouts, ongoing helpdesks and rewards for early adopters encourage long-term commitment. Reinforcement ensures change is not temporary but becomes a sustained transformation embedded within organisational culture. Strengths of the ADKAR Model The ADKAR model’s greatest strength lies in its focus on the individual. Unlike structural approaches, it acknowledges that organisational change is the aggregate of individual transitions. This person-centred orientation fosters employee engagement and psychological safety. Second, its diagnostic capability allows leaders to identify where change initiatives fail—whether due to lack of awareness, motivation, skills, or reinforcement (Hiatt, 2006). This practical clarity makes ADKAR widely used in consulting and corporate training. Third, ADKAR aligns with modern calls for ethical and participatory change management. Memana (2025) emphasises its contribution to sustainable outcomes by integrating employee voices rather than imposing top-down directives. Critiques and Limitations Despite its strengths, scholars note limitations. Critics argue that ADKAR overemphasises the individual, sometimes neglecting structural and systemic barriers such as organisational politics, culture, or external constraints (Burnes, 2017). Additionally, the model is perceived as linear, while in reality, change is often iterative and cyclical (By, 2005). Employees may move back and forth across stages rather than progressing sequentially. Finally, ADKAR requires substantial leadership commitment to personalised interventions, which may be resource-intensive in large organisations. Without such investment, its principles risk superficial application. Practical Applications IT System Rollouts: Hiatt & Creasey (2012) demonstrated that ADKAR can diagnose resistance points—such as lack of awareness or insufficient training—allowing targeted interventions. Healthcare Transformation: Hopkinson (2024) showed ADKAR’s value in introducing continuous glucose monitoring, ensuring clinicians progressed through each stage before adoption. Higher Education Reform: Kezar (2014) documented ADKAR’s application in aligning teaching practices with inclusivity goals, fostering cultural change among faculty. Corporate Mergers: In mergers, ADKAR addresses emotional resistance by building desire and reinforcing unity, helping employees transition smoothly (Hiatt, 2006). The ADKAR model, developed by Jeff Hiatt (2006), represents a significant evolution in change management by shifting focus from organisational systems to individual adoption. Its five stages—Awareness, Desire, Knowledge, Ability, and Reinforcement—offer a practical, diagnostic tool for guiding employees through transformation. Examples from IT, healthcare, and education confirm its applicability across diverse contexts, while modern research underscores its alignment with participatory and ethical management practices (Memana, 2025). Nonetheless, its limitations—notably its linearity and focus on the individual over systemic dynamics—require complementary approaches. Leaders must apply ADKAR flexibly and … Read more

Kotter’s 8-Step Process for Leading Change

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Organisational change is an inevitable reality in today’s dynamic and competitive business environment. In response to increasing complexity, John Kotter (1996) developed the 8-Step Process for Leading Change, expanding on Kurt Lewin’s earlier unfreeze–change–refreeze model. Kotter’s 8-Step Process for Leading Change framework provides a structured roadmap for organisations to manage transformation effectively, particularly in contexts such as mergers, digital transformation, and sustainability initiatives. Despite its widespread adoption, scholars argue that the model’s linear design may not reflect the iterative realities of contemporary organisational change (Suh et al., 2025). This article critically examines Kotter’s framework, applying examples from business and healthcare, and evaluates both its strengths and limitations. 1.0 Creating a Sense of Urgency Kotter (1996) argued that change begins with urgency; organisations must highlight risks of inaction to mobilise stakeholders. Without urgency, resistance dominates. For instance, during Unilever’s Sustainable Living Plan, urgency around climate change drove environmental initiatives, framing sustainability not only as ethical but also as essential for competitiveness (Unilever, 2023). Recent studies reaffirm urgency’s role in digital change. Komna and Mpungose (2024) found that in South Africa’s public sector IT reforms, leaders who established urgency by highlighting inefficiencies achieved higher stakeholder buy-in. Conversely, failing to communicate urgency often results in complacency and failed reforms. 2.0 Forming a Powerful Coalition A second critical step is building a coalition of influential leaders who can steer change. Kotter (1996) emphasised leadership beyond formal hierarchy, noting that symbolic and charismatic leaders can mobilise diverse stakeholders. Vijaykumar, Das and Sixl-Daniell (2025), in their study of Twitter’s buy-out and transition into “X,” observed that successful coalitions often blend executives, middle managers, and cultural influencers. Without such a coalition, leadership fragmentation undermines credibility. In healthcare contexts, Tsatsou (2025) showed that oncology nursing reforms required multidisciplinary leadership groups, reinforcing Kotter’s insight. 3.0 Creating a Vision for Change The third step involves crafting a compelling vision that aligns strategy, people, and operations. A vision provides clarity and direction in times of uncertainty. In medical education reform in the UAE, Dube et al. (2025) demonstrated that developing a shared vision of competency-based education aligned stakeholders and reduced resistance. Similarly, Spicer (2025) found that in post-secondary mental health initiatives in Canada, a clear vision helped overcome fragmented institutional practices. Without a strong vision, organisational change risks becoming a series of disjointed activities rather than a coherent transformation. 4.0 Communicating the Vision Kotter stressed that communication must be continuous, multi-channel, and repetitive to ensure clarity. Leaders must model behaviours aligned with the vision. Mendez (2024) showed in nursing burnout interventions that clear communication across professional levels helped sustain morale. Similarly, Seufert and Ju (2025) reported that when Z-Group implemented robotics for store cleaning, leaders who communicated frequently achieved higher levels of employee trust. Failure to communicate adequately leads to misinformation and resistance, a recurring theme in change management failures (Abernathy, 2025). 5.0 Removing Obstacles Structural, cultural, or psychological barriers must be addressed. Empowering staff with authority and resources is critical for momentum. Wong et al. (2025) described how implementing a surgical risk calculator in Hong Kong hospitals required removing bureaucratic bottlenecks and granting staff autonomy to act. Similarly, Karimi and Ljungqvist (2025) emphasised that in banking and real estate reforms, obstacle removal—including outdated IT systems—was a prerequisite for sustainable change. Obstacles left unresolved undermine credibility and stall progress. 6.0 Creating Short-Term Wins Kotter highlighted the importance of visible, early successes to build momentum and silence sceptics. Valenza et al. (2025), in oral healthcare reform, documented that celebrating pilot programme results boosted confidence in broader changes. Dillard (2025) also observed that consulting firms utilising short-term wins as part of Kotter’s framework secured client trust faster. Short-term wins not only reinforce urgency but also reduce resistance by proving that change is achievable. 7.0 Building on the Change Rather than declaring victory prematurely, Kotter argued for consolidating gains and embedding change deeper. In the digital transformation of healthcare, Subramani (2025) noted that transformational leaders sustained commitment by reinforcing cultural narratives of loyalty and continuous improvement. Similarly, Suh et al. (2025) stressed that in family medicine residency programmes, iterative reinforcement of Kotter’s steps was essential, as change is rarely linear. This step underscores the need for change as an ongoing process rather than a one-off event. 8.0 Anchoring Changes in Culture Finally, Kotter (1996) argued that changes must be embedded in organisational culture to ensure long-term sustainability. Values, rituals, and policies must reflect new behaviours. Gómez Cortés and Ramirez Orozco (2025) observed that many change efforts fail because organisations neglect cultural embedding, leading to regression. In contrast, Unilever’s sustainability initiatives succeeded because environmental values became ingrained in brand identity. Anchoring change requires both structural reinforcement and symbolic alignment with values. Critical Perspectives While Kotter’s model remains one of the most influential change frameworks, scholars have criticised its sequential and linear design. Suh et al. (2025) and Rodríguez Villanueva and Schwarz (2025) highlight that real-world change is iterative and cyclical, not strictly stepwise. Moreover, modern contexts such as digital transformation and artificial intelligence adoption require agility and rapid adaptation beyond Kotter’s original framework (Houston Jackson, 2025). Nevertheless, Kotter’s emphasis on urgency, vision, communication, and culture remains highly relevant, particularly in large-scale, complex changes (Komna & Mpungose, 2024). Kotter’s 8-Step Process for Leading Change provides a powerful roadmap for managing organisational transformation. Its strengths lie in its clarity, comprehensiveness, and emphasis on both leadership and culture. Applications in sustainability, digital transformation, and healthcare confirm its enduring relevance. However, its limitations—particularly its linearity and assumption of predictable stages—require adaptation in contemporary, complex environments. Leaders must apply Kotter’s principles flexibly, integrating them with iterative, adaptive approaches such as agile change management. Ultimately, Kotter’s model remains an indispensable foundation for understanding and navigating organisational change, but it must be seen as a guideline rather than a rigid formula. References Abernathy, A. (2025). Exploring the Challenges Faced by Organisational Change Leaders: A Qualitative Study. ProQuest. Dillard, D. (2025). A Mixed Methodology Study on Effective Products and Services for Consulting Firms. Gardner-Webb University. Dube, R., George, B.T., & Kar, S.S. … Read more

Lewin’s Change Management Model: Framework for Modern Transformation

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Change management is one of the most critical disciplines in modern organisational practice, especially as businesses and institutions face constant pressures from technological disruption, globalisation, and sustainability imperatives. Among the various frameworks available, Kurt Lewin’s Change Management Model (1951) stands out as one of the most influential and enduring. Despite its simplicity, the model continues to provide managers and leaders with a powerful framework for guiding organisational transformation. The model consists of three distinct stages: Unfreeze, Change, and Refreeze. These phases help organisations prepare for, implement, and consolidate new practices. While originally conceptualised in the mid-20th century, the framework remains relevant in contexts such as digital transformation, healthcare innovation, and cultural change programmes (Burnes, 2017; Gloria, 2025). 1.0 The Unfreeze Stage: Preparing for Change The Unfreeze stage focuses on preparing individuals and organisations for transformation by breaking down existing practices, assumptions, and behaviours. Lewin (1951) described this as a process of destabilising the status quo, making people receptive to change. Key activities in this stage include: Communicating the urgency for change. Identifying and addressing potential resistance. Building a compelling vision for the future. Burnes (2017) emphasises that unfreezing requires leaders to create a sense of discomfort with current practices while presenting a positive alternative. For example, in the financial services industry, the adoption of stricter post-crisis regulations involved “unfreezing” by showing the risks of previous practices and the benefits of compliance and transparency. Recent research demonstrates its applicability in sustainable industries. Gloria (2025) found that unfreezing through vision-building and stakeholder engagement was essential for implementing agile and resilient manufacturing processes. Similarly, Nababan and Girsang (2024) argue that unfreezing organisational culture is critical for developing digital communication strategies in retail. 2.0 The Change Stage: Transition and Implementation Once readiness is achieved, the Change stage involves transitioning towards new behaviours, processes, or structures. This stage often generates uncertainty and anxiety among employees, as familiar ways of working are replaced with the unknown. Key activities in this stage include: Providing training and development opportunities. Ensuring clear and consistent communication. Demonstrating leadership support and modelling new behaviours. Rajapakshe (2025), in a study of mergers and acquisitions in Sri Lanka’s telecommunications industry, highlights that leadership visibility and human resource practices such as training and mentoring were critical to the successful transition. Without adequate support, employees may disengage or resist the process. In healthcare, Mugge et al. (2024) demonstrated that ICT adoption for circular economy initiatives succeeded during the change stage only when empathy and tailored resources were provided. Similarly, McMahon et al. (2024) emphasise the importance of structured change activities for digital sustainability initiatives. 3.0 The Refreeze Stage: Embedding Change The final stage, Refreeze, ensures that changes are institutionalised and embedded in the organisational culture. Without this consolidation, employees may revert to old habits, undermining the change effort (Lewin, 1951). Key activities include: Reinforcing new practices through incentives and recognition. Aligning organisational culture and structures with new behaviours. Monitoring progress and celebrating milestones. Burnes (2017) stresses that refreezing is essential for stability. In healthcare, for instance, the adoption of digital medical records only became successful once staff training and leadership reinforcement were institutionalised. Rajapakshe (2025) similarly notes that in post-merger integration, the refreezing stage is critical for aligning cultural practices across merged entities. Without reinforcement, employees may continue to identify with legacy structures rather than the new organisational identity. Applications of Lewin’s Model in Modern Contexts a) Digital Transformation Lewin’s model has been applied in Industry 4.0 environments. Hedberg and Thelander (2025) show that aircraft manufacturers used unfreeze-change-refreeze cycles to coordinate digital transformation projects. While unfreezing addressed legacy system inertia, refreezing involved embedding digital tools into everyday work practices. b) Organisational Culture Change Nababan and Girsang (2024) demonstrated that cultural transformation in Indonesian retail required unfreezing deep-seated practices before shifting to new communication strategies. Refreezing ensured these practices became embedded in team norms. c) Sustainability and Circular Economy McMahon et al. (2024) applied Lewin’s model to circular economy transitions in ICT. The unfreezing process involved highlighting environmental risks of existing practices, while refreezing reinforced sustainability behaviours through corporate policies. Critiques of Lewin’s Model Despite its continued relevance, Lewin’s model faces several criticisms: Oversimplification of change: Modern organisations face continuous, non-linear transformations, which do not neatly follow a three-stage cycle (Memana, 2025). Rigidity: The model may be less effective in highly dynamic industries where change is constant. Hedberg and Thelander (2025) argue that iterative and agile approaches are often required. Cultural limitations: In contexts with strong cultural inertia, unfreezing may require longer, multifaceted efforts, which Lewin’s model underplays. Nevertheless, many scholars argue that the model’s simplicity is also its strength. It provides an accessible foundation that can be adapted or integrated with other frameworks, such as Kotter’s 8-Step Process or ADKAR (Gómez Cortés & Ramirez Orozco, 2025). Strengths of Lewin’s Model Clarity and simplicity: Provides a straightforward roadmap for leaders and managers. Foundation for modern models: Many subsequent frameworks are built upon Lewin’s concepts. Focus on behaviour and culture: Recognises that sustainable change requires not only structural adjustments but also cultural embedding. Towards a Hybrid Approach Recent research suggests that organisations benefit from hybridising Lewin’s model with contemporary frameworks. For example: Kotter’s urgency-building and coalition strategies can enhance the unfreeze stage. ADKAR’s reinforcement focus can strengthen the refreeze stage. Agile methods can supplement the change stage to manage continuous adaptation (Hedberg & Thelander, 2025). By blending Lewin’s foundational principles with modern adaptations, organisations can achieve transformation that is both structured and flexible. Lewin’s Change Management Model remains a cornerstone of organisational change theory. Its three stages—Unfreeze, Change, and Refreeze—provide a simple yet powerful framework for guiding transformation. While critics argue that it may oversimplify today’s complex, non-linear environments, the model’s enduring relevance lies in its adaptability. In contexts ranging from mergers and acquisitions to digital transformation and sustainability, Lewin’s framework continues to guide leaders in navigating resistance, supporting transitions, and embedding cultural change. For sustainable transformation, the model works best when combined with modern approaches that account for iterative and continuous change. As organisations continue … Read more

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